INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORY
Complete Study Summary — Exam Ready
Realism · Liberalism · English School · Constructivism · Post-positivism · IPE · Role Theory ·
FPA
📌 HOW TO USE THIS SUMMARY
1. Per theory: read the core profile and core assumptions first — that is the foundation.
2. Then learn the key concepts: these are the terms you must use in every exam answer.
3. Study the worked model answers — they show exactly what a strong exam answer
looks like.
4. Practise the comparison tables: the professor often tests differences between theories.
5. Professor's key instruction: 'Clarity and structure remain the priority. Nuance from
readings strengthens answers.'
, PART 1 — FOUNDATIONS: WHAT IS IR THEORY?
1.1 What is International Relations?
IR studies the relationships and interactions between states, including the activities of national
governments, international organisations (IOs), NGOs, and multinational corporations. Global Politics
(GP) critiques IR for being too myopic — too focused on states, especially Western ones. Both share
two features:
• Empirical — they concern observable aspects of world politics.
• Normative — they are based on values and visions of how the world should be.
1.2 Why do we need theory?
Description Theory
Answers: 'What happened?' Answers: 'Why did it happen?' and 'Under
Lists facts and events. what conditions would it happen again?'
No explanation, no prediction. Identifies actors, makes assumptions about
behaviour, specifies causal mechanisms.
Generates expectations about outcomes.
⚠ Key Point — Goethe
'Every fact is already a theory.' — Theories tell us which facts matter and which do not.
We always look at the world through a specific set of lenses — consciously or not.
Becoming aware of those lenses is the purpose of IR theory.
1.3 Causal chains per theory — MUST KNOW
Theory Causal Chain
Realism Anarchy → insecurity → competition for power → alliance formation
→ possible conflict
Liberalism Economic interdependence → higher costs of war → incentives for
cooperation → peace
English School Shared norms/rules → international society → order via primary
institutions → stability
Constructivism Shared identity/norms → trust → redefinition of anarchy →
cooperative or conflictual behaviour
Post-positivism Power defines knowledge → discourse determines what is
thinkable → policy follows the discourse
1.4 Ontology & Epistemology
Concept Question Example in IR
Ontology What exists? What kinds of Realist: only material power counts.
entities matter? Constructivist: ideas and norms also
have causal force.
Epistemology How can we know something? Positivist: objective knowledge via
observation & testing. Post-positivist:
, knowledge is always shaped by
context and power.
1.5 Levels of Analysis
Level Focus Example: Russian invasion of
Ukraine
Individual Leaders, beliefs, perceptions, Putin's conviction that Ukraine
psychology historically belongs to Russia;
centralised decision-making; national
pride.
State / Domestic Institutions, regime type, societal Regime stability needs; declining
pressures, economy economic performance; use of
external war for internal cohesion;
lack of checks & balances.
Systemic Anarchy, distribution of power, NATO expansion shifted the regional
polarity balance of power; security dilemma;
anarchic structure forces states into
self-help.
📝 Exam Tip — Levels of Analysis
Same crisis → three different analyses → three different policy recommendations.
Individual level: pressure on Putin personally / diplomatic communication.
State level: target internal political incentives / sanctions aimed at the elite.
Systemic level: stabilise the balance of power / limit NATO expansion / negotiate security
agreements.
, PART 2 — REALISM
2.1 Why did Realism emerge?
Realism emerged as a reaction to: the failure of the League of Nations, the rise of fascism and Nazism,
the collapse of collective security, and the outbreak of World War II. Optimism about law and institutions
was replaced by a focus on power and survival. Realism was the first dominant theory in IR.
2.2 Core Profile
Dimension Realist Position
World view Pessimistic. Humans are self-interested. International relations are
necessarily conflictual. War is the ultimate arbiter.
Key actors States — especially great powers. Lesser states must adapt to
great power demands.
Instruments Military power, economic power, balance of power, alliances.
Core limitation Cannot explain international cooperation or change. Explains the
status quo, not its evolution.
2.3 Core Assumptions — must know
• The international system is anarchic: no world government exists above sovereign states.
• States live in a 'self-help system' — they must guarantee their own security.
• Survival is the primary objective of every state.
• International relations are primarily a struggle between great powers for domination and
security.
• All international agreements are provisional — states set them aside when vital interests conflict.
• Morality is secondary to national interest.
• A balance of power between great powers is the best available mechanism for limiting war.
2.4 Key Concepts
Anarchy
Anarchy ≠ chaos. Anarchy = the absence of a central authority above states. No guaranteed protection,
no world government. States live in self-help mode. Realists acknowledge that institutions like the UN
exist, but argue they cannot force states to comply — e.g. the US refusing to pay its full UN budget.
Power
Power = material capabilities: military strength, economic resources, technological capacity,
demographic weight. Power is relational — states care about their relative position, not only their
absolute capabilities.
The Security Dilemma
Security Dilemma — mechanism
Step 1: State A arms itself for defensive purposes.
Step 2: State B perceives this as a potential threat (uncertain intentions).
Complete Study Summary — Exam Ready
Realism · Liberalism · English School · Constructivism · Post-positivism · IPE · Role Theory ·
FPA
📌 HOW TO USE THIS SUMMARY
1. Per theory: read the core profile and core assumptions first — that is the foundation.
2. Then learn the key concepts: these are the terms you must use in every exam answer.
3. Study the worked model answers — they show exactly what a strong exam answer
looks like.
4. Practise the comparison tables: the professor often tests differences between theories.
5. Professor's key instruction: 'Clarity and structure remain the priority. Nuance from
readings strengthens answers.'
, PART 1 — FOUNDATIONS: WHAT IS IR THEORY?
1.1 What is International Relations?
IR studies the relationships and interactions between states, including the activities of national
governments, international organisations (IOs), NGOs, and multinational corporations. Global Politics
(GP) critiques IR for being too myopic — too focused on states, especially Western ones. Both share
two features:
• Empirical — they concern observable aspects of world politics.
• Normative — they are based on values and visions of how the world should be.
1.2 Why do we need theory?
Description Theory
Answers: 'What happened?' Answers: 'Why did it happen?' and 'Under
Lists facts and events. what conditions would it happen again?'
No explanation, no prediction. Identifies actors, makes assumptions about
behaviour, specifies causal mechanisms.
Generates expectations about outcomes.
⚠ Key Point — Goethe
'Every fact is already a theory.' — Theories tell us which facts matter and which do not.
We always look at the world through a specific set of lenses — consciously or not.
Becoming aware of those lenses is the purpose of IR theory.
1.3 Causal chains per theory — MUST KNOW
Theory Causal Chain
Realism Anarchy → insecurity → competition for power → alliance formation
→ possible conflict
Liberalism Economic interdependence → higher costs of war → incentives for
cooperation → peace
English School Shared norms/rules → international society → order via primary
institutions → stability
Constructivism Shared identity/norms → trust → redefinition of anarchy →
cooperative or conflictual behaviour
Post-positivism Power defines knowledge → discourse determines what is
thinkable → policy follows the discourse
1.4 Ontology & Epistemology
Concept Question Example in IR
Ontology What exists? What kinds of Realist: only material power counts.
entities matter? Constructivist: ideas and norms also
have causal force.
Epistemology How can we know something? Positivist: objective knowledge via
observation & testing. Post-positivist:
, knowledge is always shaped by
context and power.
1.5 Levels of Analysis
Level Focus Example: Russian invasion of
Ukraine
Individual Leaders, beliefs, perceptions, Putin's conviction that Ukraine
psychology historically belongs to Russia;
centralised decision-making; national
pride.
State / Domestic Institutions, regime type, societal Regime stability needs; declining
pressures, economy economic performance; use of
external war for internal cohesion;
lack of checks & balances.
Systemic Anarchy, distribution of power, NATO expansion shifted the regional
polarity balance of power; security dilemma;
anarchic structure forces states into
self-help.
📝 Exam Tip — Levels of Analysis
Same crisis → three different analyses → three different policy recommendations.
Individual level: pressure on Putin personally / diplomatic communication.
State level: target internal political incentives / sanctions aimed at the elite.
Systemic level: stabilise the balance of power / limit NATO expansion / negotiate security
agreements.
, PART 2 — REALISM
2.1 Why did Realism emerge?
Realism emerged as a reaction to: the failure of the League of Nations, the rise of fascism and Nazism,
the collapse of collective security, and the outbreak of World War II. Optimism about law and institutions
was replaced by a focus on power and survival. Realism was the first dominant theory in IR.
2.2 Core Profile
Dimension Realist Position
World view Pessimistic. Humans are self-interested. International relations are
necessarily conflictual. War is the ultimate arbiter.
Key actors States — especially great powers. Lesser states must adapt to
great power demands.
Instruments Military power, economic power, balance of power, alliances.
Core limitation Cannot explain international cooperation or change. Explains the
status quo, not its evolution.
2.3 Core Assumptions — must know
• The international system is anarchic: no world government exists above sovereign states.
• States live in a 'self-help system' — they must guarantee their own security.
• Survival is the primary objective of every state.
• International relations are primarily a struggle between great powers for domination and
security.
• All international agreements are provisional — states set them aside when vital interests conflict.
• Morality is secondary to national interest.
• A balance of power between great powers is the best available mechanism for limiting war.
2.4 Key Concepts
Anarchy
Anarchy ≠ chaos. Anarchy = the absence of a central authority above states. No guaranteed protection,
no world government. States live in self-help mode. Realists acknowledge that institutions like the UN
exist, but argue they cannot force states to comply — e.g. the US refusing to pay its full UN budget.
Power
Power = material capabilities: military strength, economic resources, technological capacity,
demographic weight. Power is relational — states care about their relative position, not only their
absolute capabilities.
The Security Dilemma
Security Dilemma — mechanism
Step 1: State A arms itself for defensive purposes.
Step 2: State B perceives this as a potential threat (uncertain intentions).
