WGU C180 Study Guide

What do psychologists study? - correct answer • Biological Foundations • Mental Life • Change • Self and Others • Potential and Dysfunction What is the scientific method and how is it applied to psychological research? - correct answer The scientific method is the set of assumptions, rules, and procedures scientists use to conduct research. In addition to requiring that science is verifiable, the scientific method demands that procedures are free of personal bias. What is the definition of a hypothesis? - correct answer A specific and falsifiable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. What is an operational definition? Provide an example. - correct answer An operational definition refers to a precise statement of how a conceptual variable ( abstract idea that form the basis of research hypotheses ) which is turned into a measured variable ( varialbes consisting of numbers that represent the conceptual variables ) (Conceptual Variable) Depression - (operational definition) Number of negative words used in a creative story; number of appointments made with a psychotherapist Why are ethical guidelines needed within psychological research? - correct answer These are needed with psychological research is the prevent physical and/or emotional harm to the participants. What are the various research methods in the field of psychology? - correct answer Descriptive Research Correlational Research Experimental Research What is descriptive research? - correct answer research designed to provide a snapshot of the current state of affairs. What is Correlational Research - correct answer research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. What is Experimental Research - correct answer research in which there is a random assignment of research participants into two groups. This is followed by a manipulation of a given experience for one group while the other is not manipulated. One group is the experimental group that receives the manipulation. The other group is the control group that does not. The two groups are then compared to determine the influence of the manipulation. What is the relationship between a population and a sample? - correct answer The people chosen to participate in the research, called a sample, are selected to be representative of all the people that the researcher wishes to know about, called the population. "Sampling is the process of selecting a representative group from the population under study. The target population is the total group of individuals from which the sample might be drawn. A sample is the group of people who take part in the investigation. The people who take part are referred to as "participants"." Independent Variable - correct answer The variable in an experiment that is manipulated or compared Dependent Variable - correct answer The variable in an experiment that is measured; the outcome of an experiment Control Group - correct answer The group of subjects in an experiment that does not receive the independent variable Experimental Group - correct answer EXPERIMENTAL GROUP is the group receiving the independent variable What does a correlational research design examine? Provide an example. - correct answer research designed to discover relationships among variables and to allow the prediction of future events from present knowledge. Describe examples of a positive and a negative correlation. - correct answer Correlational-To assess the relationships between and among two or more variables. Postiive - As children age they get better at math Negative - Age of a child and the number of diapers they use "Negative correlation, the variables move in inverse, or opposite, directions. As one variable increases, the other variable decreases. For example, there is a negative correlation between self-esteem and depression. Positive correlation is when there is an increase in one variable it is associated with an increase in another variable. For example: with height and weight, taller people tend to be heavier." What are the differences in interpretations of correlational and experimental designs? - correct answer In correlational studies a researcher looks for associations among naturally occurring variables, whereas in experimental studies the researcher introduces a change and then monitors its effects. "An experiment isolates and manipulates the independent variable to observe its effect on the dependent variable, and controls the environment in order that extraneous variables may be eliminated. Experiments establish cause and effect. A correlation identifies variables and looks for a relationship between them." What are the four parts of a neuron and its role in neural communication? - correct answer Cell Body (Soma), Dendrites, Axon, Myelin Sheath Cell Body (Soma) - correct answer contains the nucleus of the cell and keeps the cell alive Dendrites - correct answer a branching, treelike fiber which collects information from other cells and sends the information to the soma Axon - correct answer a long, segmented fiber which transmits information away from the cell body toward other neurons or to the muscles and glands. Myelin Sheath - correct answer Covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses What is a neurotransmitter? What are a few examples? - correct answer Neurochemical messengers that are released by terminal buttons when an action potential triggers them. Acetylocholine (ACh), Dopamine, Endorphins, GABA (Gamma Aminobuytric Acid), Glutamate, Serotonin Neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine (ACh) - correct answer Used in spinal cord to simulate muscle contractions and in brain to regulate memory, sleeping and dreaming. Undersupply associated with Alzheimer's disease. Neurotransmitter: Dopamine - correct answer Used as brains reward system. Involved in movement, motivation, and emotion. Used in learning. Increase = Schizophrenia. Under supply = Parkinsons Neurotransmitter: Endorphins - correct answer Released in response to behaviors such as exercise, orgasm, and eating. Nataural pain reliever. Creates a runners high Neurotransmitter: GABA (Gamma Aminobutyric Acid) - correct answer Major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Linked to seizures. Controls fear or anxiety, keeps us calm. Too little GABA can lead to anxiety. Neurotransmitter: Glutamate - correct answer cause overstimulation, migraines, and seizures. Most common neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter: Serotonin - correct answer Involved in mood, appetite, sleep and aggression. Low levels associated with depressions. Where are neurotransmitters stored? How do they communicate between neurons? - correct answer They are stored in the axon terminal at the very end of the terminal in the very tip of the finger-like branches. The very end is called the terminal button. "If the signal reaches the terminal buttons, they are signaled to emit chemicals known as neurotransmitters, which communicate with other neurons across the spaces between the cells, known as synapses." What is the function of the cerebellum? - correct answer Coordination, balance, and posture. Stand, walk, run, dance. Circular and tucked up underneath the lobes of the brain. Cinderella's cerebellum - dancing. What is the function of the hypothalamus? - correct answer Body temperature, hunger, thirst, and sex drive. Below the thalamus. Hypothermostat = body temperature. What is the function of the thalamus? - correct answer Consciousness and sleep. Underneath the corpus callosum right in the middle of the brain. Thank you thalamus for letting me sleep. What is the function of the corpus callosum? - correct answer Band of nerve fibers joining the two hemispheres of the brain and allowing them to communicate. Like a mediator reminded the left and right brain to work together. What is the function of the hippocampus? - correct answer Store long term memory. Looks like horns. If I see a hippo with horns on the highway, I will never forget because I have a hippocampus. What is the function of the frontal lobe? - correct answer Thinking, planning, judgement. Right behind your forehead. Remember: scratch your forehead when you are thinking. What is the function of the parietal lobe? - correct answer Processing information about touch like a tickle on your foot. Behind the frontal lobe. Parietal lobe processes. Remember the P's. What is the function of the temporal lobe? - correct answer Hearing and language. Around the ear region. Headphones would sit around the temporal lobe. What is the function of the occipital lobe? - correct answer Visual information. Very back of the head. O like a circle of the eye or the lens in glasses. "Eyes in the back of my head" What is the endocrine system? - correct answer secretes chemical messengers called hormones that influence our emotions and behaviors. What is the function of the pancreas? - correct answer Regulates the level of blood sugar in the blood What is the function of the testes? - correct answer produce sperm and testosterone What is function of the ovaries? - correct answer Progesterone/estrogen/egg production. What is the function of the pituitary gland? - correct answer Secretes many different hormones, some of which affect other glands. It's the master gland. Controls everything. What is the difference between sensation and perception? - correct answer sensation—awareness resulting from the stimulation of a sense organ perception—the organization and interpretation of sensations What is the definition for the term absolute threshold? - correct answer the intensity of a stimulus that allows an organism to just barely detect it What is subliminal messaging? How effective is subliminal messaging? - correct answer means "below the threshold" and only effective 50% of the time. A signal or message designed to pass below (sub) the normal limits of perception. An inaudible to the conscious mind (but audible to the unconscious or deeper mind) What is top-down perception? Provide an example - correct answer we utilize preexisting expectancies and experiences to perceive the environment. For example, if your friend offers you a carton of milk and tells you she thinks it is spoiled, then you will now experience that milk using a top-down process. Your friend has created an expectation for you to find that the milk is indeed spoiled. If your friend had just handed the milk to you and let you take a drink for yourself, then you may not have found it to be spoiled at all. What is inattentional blindness? - correct answer the ability to focus on some sensory inputs while tuning out others Briefly, describe Pavlov's early work in classical conditioning - correct answer In Pavlov's experiment, the sound of the tone served as the conditioned stimulus that, after learning, produced the conditioned response (CR), which is the acquired response to the formerly neutral stimulus. Note that the UR and the CR are the same behavior—in this case salivation—but they are given different names because they are produced by different stimuli (the US and the CS, respectively). What is classical conditioning? - correct answer refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a specific behavior. Give an example of a Unconditioned Stimulus, Unconditioned Response, Conditioned Stimulus, Conditioned Response. - correct answer US: Cat Food UR: Runs to food CS: Ruffling the bag CR: Runs to food What is Extinction? - correct answer The weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn. Provide an example of extinction. - correct answer You no longer fill the cats food bowl after ruffling a bag, so the cat no longer comes to that noise. What is generalization? - correct answer Carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from on setting or task to another. Provide an example of generalization - correct answer The cat comes to the sound of any ruffling bag. What is operant conditioning? Define and provide an example relevant to your work. - correct answer learning that occurs on the bases of the consequences of behavior and can involve the learning of new behaviors. Example: getting money for getting good grades on a report card What are the differences between primary and secondary/conditioned reinforcers? Provide an example of each. - correct answer primary reinforcer includes stimuli that are naturally preferred or enjoyed by the organism-Biological, such as food, water, and relief from pain, a secondary reinforcer (sometimes called conditioned reinforcer) is a neutral event that has become associated with a primary reinforcer through classical conditioning. What is a positive reinforcement? Provide a real world example - correct answer Add or increase a pleasant stimulus. Giving a student a prize after he gets an A on a test What is a negative reinforcement? Provide a real world example - correct answer Reduce or subtract an unpleasant stimulus -Taking painkillers that eliminate pain increases the likelihood that you will take painkillers again What is a positive punishment? Provide a real world example - correct answer Presenting a negative consequence after an undesired behavior is exhibited, making the behavior less likely to happen in the future. -Giving a student extra homework after she misbehaves in class What is a negative punishment? Provide a real world example - correct answer Taking something good or desirable away to reduce the occurrence of a particular behavior. -Taking away a teen's car after she misses curfew What is a fixed interval? Provide a real world example - correct answer A schedule of reinforcement where the first response is rewarded only after a specific amount of time has passed. -Factory workers who are paid according to the number of products they produce What is a variable interval? Provide a real world example? - correct answer An inconsistent schedule of reinforcement. -Payoffs from slot machines and other games of chance. What is a fixed ratio? Provide a real world example. - correct answer A schedule of reinforcement where a response is reinforced only after a specific number of responses. -People who earn a monthly salary What is a variable ratio? Provide a real world example. - correct answer Responses are reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses. -Person who checks voice mail for messages. Reinforcement schedules - correct answer Continuous and partial continuous reinforcement schedule - correct answer A behavior is reinforced every time it occurs. For example if you give your child a candy bar every time he cleans his room partial reinforcement schedule - correct answer a schedule in which reinforcement is delivered only some of the time after the response has occurred. Example: you gave your child a candy bar every so often after he cleans his room. Note: this type of schedule is much more difficult to extinguish Classical conditioning - correct answer Learning to associate 2 stimuli together, which leads to an organism anticipating future events. Example: Ivan Paplov studied salivation in dogs as a precursor to digestion. operant conditioning - correct answer a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher what is meant by latent learning? - correct answer latent learning refers to knowledge that only becomes clear when a person has an incentive to display it. For example, a child might learn how to complete a math problem in class, but this learning is not immediately obvious. Only when the child is offered some form of reinforcement for completing the problem does this learning reveal itself What is the Bobo Doll experiment? - correct answer Observation of adult aggressive behavior influenced later behavior in children presented with the same toy, without reinforcement or punishment of the behavior. What did the Bobo Doll expirement show? - correct answer It shows the effects of observational learning. People tend to immitate the behaviors of other people.