Democracy and Participation
Democracy means rule by the people from Ancient Greek word ‘demos’ (the people) and ‘Kratia’ (rule
or power). But how the will of people should be translated into action is fiercely debated. Plato (Greek
Philosopher) saw democracy as undesirable and worried that mob rule by the uneducated masses
would be damaging and could lead to anarchy and chaos.
Democracy today largely seen as a good thing, but people still debate its meaning and how it should be
applied such as North Korea saying it’s a democratic people republic yet western countries call it a
totalitarian regime. Democracy is about the process and means of translating the people’s will into
coherent plans and action.
Current Systems of Democracy
Direct Democracy
Originated in Ancient Greece – Athens – in the fifth century BC.
Every tax-paying citizen had one vote – all were equal.
Assembled free citizens made decisions fairly, equally, and directly.
Began to crumble in 4th Century BC > DD disappeared until 19th century excluding a few exceptions.
Referendums – common in Europe & some states in USA
However, DD should be seen as an addition to representative democracy than separate as it can add
great legitimacy. As the size and nature of politics would make DD impractical.
Advantages Disadvantages
Purest form of democracy Tyranny of the Majority (winning party ignores
minority & imposes something detrimental on
them)
Avoids delay / deadlock People swayed by short-term / emotional appeals
by charismatic individuals
People are directly making the decisions = Too complex for ordinary citizens to understand
legitimacy
Prevents arbitrary use of power by gov Time consuming
Representative Democracy
Representatives make decisions on behalf of the citizens usually through a formal elective process.
Ensures those elected are held to account – essential for representative democracy to work to
ensure representatives are working in the people’s interests.
o Accountable in opinion polls
o Next general election
o Opposition parties will highlight the shortcomings of the current government.
However, accountability between elections is less certain but can occur through investigations, media
and individual representatives asking questions. But individual representatives are usually safe until the
next election.
MPs faced with dilemma of how to represent their constituency.
Trustee Model – (Edmund Burke) MPs should offer his unbiased opinion, mature judgement and
enlightened conscience.
o MPs are free to make decisions they believe are best suited for their constituency, who
should trust their MP to make decisions on their behalf
They have expertise, time, resources to make an appropriate judgement,
accountability rather than mass amounts of people, avoids voters’ apathy with
DD, outdated (lack of trust – expense scandal 2009), no representation for the
poor/minorities
Impractical due to Whips forcing MPs to vote in-line with pp not their independent
decision but is used in Votes of Conscience (not limited by Whips)
Mandate Model – Most used theory in the UK
o MPs are prominently spokesperson for their party – stand on common manifesto at
election & expected to implement it. Constituents provide MP with mandate by electing
them = carries out pp policies with legitimacy
MPs expected to be loyal to pp and punished if not – (carrots/sticks)
, CS: Starmer withdrew whip on 7 LP’s who refused to back the child benefit cap
Delegate Model
o MPs should act directly as a spokesperson for their constituency.
Constituency pop around 40k = unattainable for true representation of every
constituent/mutual consensus
o Since 2024 more delegate MPs > CS: Former cons MP ‘Zac Goldsmith’ promised to resign
if gov agreed to build 3rd runway at Heathrow in protest. Kept his word – stood
independent in by-election but lost to Lib-Dems
Advantages Disadvantages
Held to account during election time May not act in the best interests of their
Expertise and time to deal with matters that constituents
the public doesn’t have It is difficult to hold to account in between
Time to deal with complex matters – public elections
left to own accord Allowing Voters to delegate responsibility can
Only practical way to translate public opinion lead to voter apathy – disengagement from
into political action social issues/responsibilities
Representative bodies can be
unrepresentative and may ignore the
concerns and needs of minorities
Types of Representation
For Representative Democracy Not Direct Democracy
Citizens usually think that someone will represent/express the concerns/needs of the local community –
like a spokesperson.
Social Representation
The characteristics of members of the representative bodies e.g., parliament/regional assemblies/local
councils should broadly represent the characteristics of the population.
National Interest Representation
If they sit in national parliament, they are expected to represent the nation & do what they believe is
right, rather than what the people may want. This may clash with local constituencies leading them to
resolve issues in their own way.
Constituency Representation
Constituency with similar social and economic concerns and will have a representative that will speak
about those issues in the elected national body.
Representing the interest of the whole consistency e.g., local services
Representing interests of individual constituents – redress of grievances
Representatives listen to the views of the constituents when deciding about a national issue.
Cannot create tension if the representative does not personally align with the consistency’s views.
Party Representation
Parties have states policies in their manifesto. It follows that members of a party who are seeking to be
elected will campaign based on the pp manifesto. Therefore, they represent their party and voters
understand this.
Occupational or Social Representation
Representatives will represent their constituency or region and a particular occupational or social
group.
Casual Representation
Representative bodies do not represent people as ideas, principles, and causes. Instead, representing
the
whole community, with the belief and demands involved are claimed to benefit everyone not just a
particular group. ??
More done through PG than MP’s
Is Direct Democracy a better form of democracy?
Advantages Disadvantages
It is the purest form of democracy Elected representatives may have better
judgment than the mass population
Decisions made directly by the people have more Representatives may be more rational and not
, authority swayed by emotion
Decisions made by the people are often difficult Representatives can protect the interests of
for future gov to change or cancel minorities
Can help educate people about political issues Elected representatives may be better informed
than the public
Nature of Representative Democracy in the UK
Regulated by the Electoral Commission ensuring representation is fair and all those entitled to vote can
register to vote. Additionally, it ensures political parties don’t have undue influence through spending.
In the UK it is broadly uncorrupted with exceptions of peers and MP’s breaking rules and acting
dishonestly
Levels of Representation
Representation has become decentralized, and most people enjoy 2-3 levels of representation if not
more.
Level Jurisdiction
Parish or Lowest level – deal with local issues such as parks/gardens/parking restrictions/public
Town Council amenities and small planning issues
Local May be county councils. District councils or metropolitan councils depending on the
councils area/ they deal with local services such as education, public transport, roads, social
services, and public health
Combined Groups of two or more local councils in England join to share resources and increased
authorities powers devolved to them from central government. May be presided over by an
elected mayor – Greater Manchester – or not such as the combined authority in West
Yorkshire
Metropolitan Big city government – London – deal with strategic city issues such as policing, public
authorities transport, arts funding, environment, large planning issues, and emergency services.
Normally have elected mayors and strategic authority
Devolved Governments of Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland with varying powers but all
government deal with health, social services, education, policing, and transport. All three have
s elected representative bodies
Parliament Jurisdiction of UK Parliament and UK government
Forms of Representation
Constituencies
Acknowledged strength of representative democracy in the UK is that every representative has a
constituency to which they are accountable to and whose interests they should pursue.
Individuals in the constituency should have their grievances considered, and the interests of the
whole constituency should be given a hearing in parliament
Elected representatives are regularly made accountable to the constituency
Level of Representatives
Constituency
Ward or Parish Parish and local councilors
Parliamentary MP’s
Constituency
City region Assembly members
Metropolitan Elected Mayors
assembly
Devolved assembly Members of SP (MSPs), Members of Senedd in Wales & Members of the
constituency Legislative Assembly in NI (MSLs)
Parties
UK is unusual as pp play a much more central role compared to other democracies due to:
1. PP evolved out of ideological principles = united by core beliefs/principles whereas in USA
parties arose in reaction to events or conflicts (looser confederations with shared label but
different principles)
2. Single party governs the UK – except with coalition gov 2010 & 2017 minority conservatives
formed pack with Democratic Unionist Party.
Government representation
People are represented, with the winning party governing on behalf of the whole community and
not just those who support that party.
Pressure groups
, Representative bodies in two different ways:
o Formal membership representing their section of society by promoting policies that
benefit them – sectional (British Medical Association & National Farmers Union)
o Casual representation – representing a set of beliefs, principles or demands believing
they’ll benefit the whole community e.g., Liberty (HR) or Green (environment)
All PG represent in different ways – likely a PG representing our interests leading to a:
o Pluralist democracy (interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from
competing groups and organisations that gov makes decisions from)
o Civil society (collective name for various associations (pp/pg/religion/voluntary
organisations/charities) to which citizens belong and may become active. Vital
counterbalance to power of government.
How Democratic Is the UK?
1. What constitutes a democratic political system? (no single definition for democracy)
2. What constitutes a democratic society?
Democracy is usually a term when a guide of the most accepted features of democracy by western
liberal standards are followed
The UK’s System of Liberal Democracy
John Locke – governments ruled by consent of the government & social contract between gov and the
people & limitations on government to prevent arbitrary power to create a free society.
Peaceful Transition of Power
Those who lose power by democratic means must accept the authority of those who have won. If not,
politics breaks down, and non-peaceful conflict is likely to ensue.
Ensure democracy can hold gov accountable & legitimacy of those who have won the election
Free Elections
Cornerstone– all adults (however defined) are free to vote & stand for office = universal suffrage
Elections need to be free to ensure people can vote without fear, threats or intimidation –
usually done through secret ballot (private voting so no one knows how an individual votes)
Courts to ensure people aren’t unfairly denied the right to vote
o Without – votes can be sold/coerced or not vote at all
Fair Elections
Everyone has one vote and all votes are equal. There are safeguards in place to avoid electoral fraud
and ballot rigging (process of fixing an election to ensure particular outcome – stuffing ballot boxes with
extra votes, losing
ballot boxes or miscounting votes)
Can be challenged by the electoral system used – FPTP the winning candidate gained most
votes, so it is fair but it also unfair as they didn’t have to reach 50% + 1 of the votes
Widespread Participation
It is important that a large part of the population participate. A well-informed and active population
prevents governments from becoming too dictatorial, without participation there is a breakdown in
communication.
Freedom of Expression and Information
Right of people to express their opinions and criticize the government
Civil Liberty – people cannot be persecuted for expressing negative opinions of those in power,
their policies or their competence
Free to access public information to enable the people to check the government and consider how well
it is governing. Few governments enjoy being criticized but it’s democratic where public discussion and
evaluation aren’t banned or restricted.
Implies free media, no government censorship and no government interference
Development of internet has made this access easier, but accuracy is questioned e.g. FB posts
2025 about gov requiring cohabiting couples to register to HMRC or be fined £2,000
Freedom of Association
Freedom to form parties or pressure groups, provided their aims and methods are legal. PG/PP are vital
for representation for unnoticed issues/minorities
The Rule of Law
Democracy means rule by the people from Ancient Greek word ‘demos’ (the people) and ‘Kratia’ (rule
or power). But how the will of people should be translated into action is fiercely debated. Plato (Greek
Philosopher) saw democracy as undesirable and worried that mob rule by the uneducated masses
would be damaging and could lead to anarchy and chaos.
Democracy today largely seen as a good thing, but people still debate its meaning and how it should be
applied such as North Korea saying it’s a democratic people republic yet western countries call it a
totalitarian regime. Democracy is about the process and means of translating the people’s will into
coherent plans and action.
Current Systems of Democracy
Direct Democracy
Originated in Ancient Greece – Athens – in the fifth century BC.
Every tax-paying citizen had one vote – all were equal.
Assembled free citizens made decisions fairly, equally, and directly.
Began to crumble in 4th Century BC > DD disappeared until 19th century excluding a few exceptions.
Referendums – common in Europe & some states in USA
However, DD should be seen as an addition to representative democracy than separate as it can add
great legitimacy. As the size and nature of politics would make DD impractical.
Advantages Disadvantages
Purest form of democracy Tyranny of the Majority (winning party ignores
minority & imposes something detrimental on
them)
Avoids delay / deadlock People swayed by short-term / emotional appeals
by charismatic individuals
People are directly making the decisions = Too complex for ordinary citizens to understand
legitimacy
Prevents arbitrary use of power by gov Time consuming
Representative Democracy
Representatives make decisions on behalf of the citizens usually through a formal elective process.
Ensures those elected are held to account – essential for representative democracy to work to
ensure representatives are working in the people’s interests.
o Accountable in opinion polls
o Next general election
o Opposition parties will highlight the shortcomings of the current government.
However, accountability between elections is less certain but can occur through investigations, media
and individual representatives asking questions. But individual representatives are usually safe until the
next election.
MPs faced with dilemma of how to represent their constituency.
Trustee Model – (Edmund Burke) MPs should offer his unbiased opinion, mature judgement and
enlightened conscience.
o MPs are free to make decisions they believe are best suited for their constituency, who
should trust their MP to make decisions on their behalf
They have expertise, time, resources to make an appropriate judgement,
accountability rather than mass amounts of people, avoids voters’ apathy with
DD, outdated (lack of trust – expense scandal 2009), no representation for the
poor/minorities
Impractical due to Whips forcing MPs to vote in-line with pp not their independent
decision but is used in Votes of Conscience (not limited by Whips)
Mandate Model – Most used theory in the UK
o MPs are prominently spokesperson for their party – stand on common manifesto at
election & expected to implement it. Constituents provide MP with mandate by electing
them = carries out pp policies with legitimacy
MPs expected to be loyal to pp and punished if not – (carrots/sticks)
, CS: Starmer withdrew whip on 7 LP’s who refused to back the child benefit cap
Delegate Model
o MPs should act directly as a spokesperson for their constituency.
Constituency pop around 40k = unattainable for true representation of every
constituent/mutual consensus
o Since 2024 more delegate MPs > CS: Former cons MP ‘Zac Goldsmith’ promised to resign
if gov agreed to build 3rd runway at Heathrow in protest. Kept his word – stood
independent in by-election but lost to Lib-Dems
Advantages Disadvantages
Held to account during election time May not act in the best interests of their
Expertise and time to deal with matters that constituents
the public doesn’t have It is difficult to hold to account in between
Time to deal with complex matters – public elections
left to own accord Allowing Voters to delegate responsibility can
Only practical way to translate public opinion lead to voter apathy – disengagement from
into political action social issues/responsibilities
Representative bodies can be
unrepresentative and may ignore the
concerns and needs of minorities
Types of Representation
For Representative Democracy Not Direct Democracy
Citizens usually think that someone will represent/express the concerns/needs of the local community –
like a spokesperson.
Social Representation
The characteristics of members of the representative bodies e.g., parliament/regional assemblies/local
councils should broadly represent the characteristics of the population.
National Interest Representation
If they sit in national parliament, they are expected to represent the nation & do what they believe is
right, rather than what the people may want. This may clash with local constituencies leading them to
resolve issues in their own way.
Constituency Representation
Constituency with similar social and economic concerns and will have a representative that will speak
about those issues in the elected national body.
Representing the interest of the whole consistency e.g., local services
Representing interests of individual constituents – redress of grievances
Representatives listen to the views of the constituents when deciding about a national issue.
Cannot create tension if the representative does not personally align with the consistency’s views.
Party Representation
Parties have states policies in their manifesto. It follows that members of a party who are seeking to be
elected will campaign based on the pp manifesto. Therefore, they represent their party and voters
understand this.
Occupational or Social Representation
Representatives will represent their constituency or region and a particular occupational or social
group.
Casual Representation
Representative bodies do not represent people as ideas, principles, and causes. Instead, representing
the
whole community, with the belief and demands involved are claimed to benefit everyone not just a
particular group. ??
More done through PG than MP’s
Is Direct Democracy a better form of democracy?
Advantages Disadvantages
It is the purest form of democracy Elected representatives may have better
judgment than the mass population
Decisions made directly by the people have more Representatives may be more rational and not
, authority swayed by emotion
Decisions made by the people are often difficult Representatives can protect the interests of
for future gov to change or cancel minorities
Can help educate people about political issues Elected representatives may be better informed
than the public
Nature of Representative Democracy in the UK
Regulated by the Electoral Commission ensuring representation is fair and all those entitled to vote can
register to vote. Additionally, it ensures political parties don’t have undue influence through spending.
In the UK it is broadly uncorrupted with exceptions of peers and MP’s breaking rules and acting
dishonestly
Levels of Representation
Representation has become decentralized, and most people enjoy 2-3 levels of representation if not
more.
Level Jurisdiction
Parish or Lowest level – deal with local issues such as parks/gardens/parking restrictions/public
Town Council amenities and small planning issues
Local May be county councils. District councils or metropolitan councils depending on the
councils area/ they deal with local services such as education, public transport, roads, social
services, and public health
Combined Groups of two or more local councils in England join to share resources and increased
authorities powers devolved to them from central government. May be presided over by an
elected mayor – Greater Manchester – or not such as the combined authority in West
Yorkshire
Metropolitan Big city government – London – deal with strategic city issues such as policing, public
authorities transport, arts funding, environment, large planning issues, and emergency services.
Normally have elected mayors and strategic authority
Devolved Governments of Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland with varying powers but all
government deal with health, social services, education, policing, and transport. All three have
s elected representative bodies
Parliament Jurisdiction of UK Parliament and UK government
Forms of Representation
Constituencies
Acknowledged strength of representative democracy in the UK is that every representative has a
constituency to which they are accountable to and whose interests they should pursue.
Individuals in the constituency should have their grievances considered, and the interests of the
whole constituency should be given a hearing in parliament
Elected representatives are regularly made accountable to the constituency
Level of Representatives
Constituency
Ward or Parish Parish and local councilors
Parliamentary MP’s
Constituency
City region Assembly members
Metropolitan Elected Mayors
assembly
Devolved assembly Members of SP (MSPs), Members of Senedd in Wales & Members of the
constituency Legislative Assembly in NI (MSLs)
Parties
UK is unusual as pp play a much more central role compared to other democracies due to:
1. PP evolved out of ideological principles = united by core beliefs/principles whereas in USA
parties arose in reaction to events or conflicts (looser confederations with shared label but
different principles)
2. Single party governs the UK – except with coalition gov 2010 & 2017 minority conservatives
formed pack with Democratic Unionist Party.
Government representation
People are represented, with the winning party governing on behalf of the whole community and
not just those who support that party.
Pressure groups
, Representative bodies in two different ways:
o Formal membership representing their section of society by promoting policies that
benefit them – sectional (British Medical Association & National Farmers Union)
o Casual representation – representing a set of beliefs, principles or demands believing
they’ll benefit the whole community e.g., Liberty (HR) or Green (environment)
All PG represent in different ways – likely a PG representing our interests leading to a:
o Pluralist democracy (interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from
competing groups and organisations that gov makes decisions from)
o Civil society (collective name for various associations (pp/pg/religion/voluntary
organisations/charities) to which citizens belong and may become active. Vital
counterbalance to power of government.
How Democratic Is the UK?
1. What constitutes a democratic political system? (no single definition for democracy)
2. What constitutes a democratic society?
Democracy is usually a term when a guide of the most accepted features of democracy by western
liberal standards are followed
The UK’s System of Liberal Democracy
John Locke – governments ruled by consent of the government & social contract between gov and the
people & limitations on government to prevent arbitrary power to create a free society.
Peaceful Transition of Power
Those who lose power by democratic means must accept the authority of those who have won. If not,
politics breaks down, and non-peaceful conflict is likely to ensue.
Ensure democracy can hold gov accountable & legitimacy of those who have won the election
Free Elections
Cornerstone– all adults (however defined) are free to vote & stand for office = universal suffrage
Elections need to be free to ensure people can vote without fear, threats or intimidation –
usually done through secret ballot (private voting so no one knows how an individual votes)
Courts to ensure people aren’t unfairly denied the right to vote
o Without – votes can be sold/coerced or not vote at all
Fair Elections
Everyone has one vote and all votes are equal. There are safeguards in place to avoid electoral fraud
and ballot rigging (process of fixing an election to ensure particular outcome – stuffing ballot boxes with
extra votes, losing
ballot boxes or miscounting votes)
Can be challenged by the electoral system used – FPTP the winning candidate gained most
votes, so it is fair but it also unfair as they didn’t have to reach 50% + 1 of the votes
Widespread Participation
It is important that a large part of the population participate. A well-informed and active population
prevents governments from becoming too dictatorial, without participation there is a breakdown in
communication.
Freedom of Expression and Information
Right of people to express their opinions and criticize the government
Civil Liberty – people cannot be persecuted for expressing negative opinions of those in power,
their policies or their competence
Free to access public information to enable the people to check the government and consider how well
it is governing. Few governments enjoy being criticized but it’s democratic where public discussion and
evaluation aren’t banned or restricted.
Implies free media, no government censorship and no government interference
Development of internet has made this access easier, but accuracy is questioned e.g. FB posts
2025 about gov requiring cohabiting couples to register to HMRC or be fined £2,000
Freedom of Association
Freedom to form parties or pressure groups, provided their aims and methods are legal. PG/PP are vital
for representation for unnoticed issues/minorities
The Rule of Law
