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Schizophrenia
Topics:
● Introduction to Schizophrenia
● Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
● Psychological Explanations for Schizophrenia
● Biological Therapy for Schizophrenia
● Psychological Therapy for Schizophrenia
● Management of Schizophrenia
● The Interactionist Approach to Schizophrenia
Classification and Diagnosis
Sch izophr en ia is recognised as a severe mental illness whereby contact with reality
and insight are impaired, and thus, it is an example of a psychotic disorder
(psychosis).
Prevalance:
● Liftem risk of being diagnosed is 1% without family history
● More common amongst men than women
● Onset of the disorder occurs between 16-25 years, but usually occurs 4-5 years
earlier in males than in females
● Recognised universally but is more commonly diagnosed in western culture
Risk factors:
● Drug and alcohol abuse (mushrooms, LSD, cannabis, ecstasy)
● Family relationships
● Genetics (family history)
● Being male
● Socioeconomic status (lower class)
● Urban living
● Complications with pregnancy
● Trauma
Schizophrenia does not have one single defining characteristic/symptom, instead, it
includes a cluster of symptoms which appear to be unrelated *syndrome), hence why
,it is very hard to diagnose. In order to make a diagnosis, a mental health professional
would use either the DSM-V (USA) or the ICD-11 (Europe).
Positive Sym ptom s → Experiences and behaviours that are in addition to normal
experience.
● Delusion s → Irrational/false beliefs that are firmly held despite being completely
illogical or for which there is no evidence. These beliefs can be paranoid in nature
or self-directed and involve an inflated sense of power.
- Delusion s of per secution → The belief that others want to harm,
threaten or manipulate you. For example, believing you are being spied
on, that nasty rumours are being spread about you or that people are
plotting to kill you.
- Delusion s of gr an deur → The belief that you are an important
individual, even god-like and have extraordinary powers. One of the most
frequent of this type is the belief that they are Jesus Christ.
- Delusion s of con tr ol → The belief that you are under the control of an
alien force that has invaded your mind and/or body. This may be
interpreted as the presence of spirits of implanted neurotransmitters.
● H allucin ation s → False sensations that have no basis in reality. They appear in
many forms such as auditory, visual, tactile or olfactory. They may appear to be a
single person talking or many, and they may be familiar or unfamiliar.
● Cataton ic B ehaviou r → This is characterised by abnormal motor activity
where a person may experience loss of motor skills or extreme hyperactive motor
activity.
Negative Sym ptom s → Behaviours that represent the loss of normal experiences and
abilities.
● Speech Pover ty (Alogia) → The inability to speak properly, characterised by a
lack of ability to produce fluent words; this is thought to reflect slowing or
blocked thoughts. It can manifest itself as short and empty replies to questions.
● Aff ective Flaten in g (fl at em otion s) → This is when a person experiences a
reduction in the range of their emotional expressions, for example, tone of voice,
facial expressions, and eye contact.
● Avolition → A lack of purposeful/willed behaviour. A person lacks the will to
act.
● An hedon ia → a general loss of interest or pleasure in everyday activities and life.
, Reliability of Diagnosis
Reliability → the consistency of a research study or measuring test.
● If the diagnosis of SZ is reliable, we would expect a consistent diagnosis over
time (test-r etest) and between clinicians (in ter -r ater ).
Validity of Diagnosis
Validity → the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure and how
accurately the results can be applied and interpreted.
● If the diagnosis of SZ is valid, we expect a person to only be diagnosed if they
actually have schizophrenia
Cr iter ion validity → Refers to whether we are using accurate criteria in order to
diagnose schizophrenia. The diagnosis of schizophrenia can be heavily influenced by the
classification system used. For example, the DSM-V requires 1 positive symptom,
whereas the ICD-11 requires a minimum of 2 negative symptoms. This raises issues with
the classification and diagnosis of Schizophrenia as it means that Schizophrenia may be
over or underdiagnosed depending on the system used.
Com or bidity → People with schizophrenia often also experience another condition,
and thus, schizophrenia is commonly diagnosed alongside other conditions such as
depression. This raises problems with the validity of the diagnosis as it could mean that
both conditions are not entirely separate and instead should be classified as part of the
same diagnosis.
Sym ptom over lap → Symptoms associated with schizophrenia, such as avolition and
delusions, are also identified as symptoms of other conditions, such as bipolar disorder.
This is a problem when providing a diagnosis as the clinician cannot be certain which
condition the symptom relates to, which increases the likelihood of a misdiagnosis
being given, which in turn reduces the validity of the classification system used.
Gender bias (alpha bias) → This is the idea that the accuracy of diagnosis can vary
based on gender-biased diagnostic criteria and the gender of the clinician providing the
diagnosis. Some symptoms of schizophrenia are less apparent in females in comparison to
males, and this may be because females are genetically less vulnerable than males or
because females are able to manage them better due to having closer relationships and,
therefore, a support network. Consequently, this raises a problem for the diagnosis of
Schizophrenia
Topics:
● Introduction to Schizophrenia
● Biological Explanations for Schizophrenia
● Psychological Explanations for Schizophrenia
● Biological Therapy for Schizophrenia
● Psychological Therapy for Schizophrenia
● Management of Schizophrenia
● The Interactionist Approach to Schizophrenia
Classification and Diagnosis
Sch izophr en ia is recognised as a severe mental illness whereby contact with reality
and insight are impaired, and thus, it is an example of a psychotic disorder
(psychosis).
Prevalance:
● Liftem risk of being diagnosed is 1% without family history
● More common amongst men than women
● Onset of the disorder occurs between 16-25 years, but usually occurs 4-5 years
earlier in males than in females
● Recognised universally but is more commonly diagnosed in western culture
Risk factors:
● Drug and alcohol abuse (mushrooms, LSD, cannabis, ecstasy)
● Family relationships
● Genetics (family history)
● Being male
● Socioeconomic status (lower class)
● Urban living
● Complications with pregnancy
● Trauma
Schizophrenia does not have one single defining characteristic/symptom, instead, it
includes a cluster of symptoms which appear to be unrelated *syndrome), hence why
,it is very hard to diagnose. In order to make a diagnosis, a mental health professional
would use either the DSM-V (USA) or the ICD-11 (Europe).
Positive Sym ptom s → Experiences and behaviours that are in addition to normal
experience.
● Delusion s → Irrational/false beliefs that are firmly held despite being completely
illogical or for which there is no evidence. These beliefs can be paranoid in nature
or self-directed and involve an inflated sense of power.
- Delusion s of per secution → The belief that others want to harm,
threaten or manipulate you. For example, believing you are being spied
on, that nasty rumours are being spread about you or that people are
plotting to kill you.
- Delusion s of gr an deur → The belief that you are an important
individual, even god-like and have extraordinary powers. One of the most
frequent of this type is the belief that they are Jesus Christ.
- Delusion s of con tr ol → The belief that you are under the control of an
alien force that has invaded your mind and/or body. This may be
interpreted as the presence of spirits of implanted neurotransmitters.
● H allucin ation s → False sensations that have no basis in reality. They appear in
many forms such as auditory, visual, tactile or olfactory. They may appear to be a
single person talking or many, and they may be familiar or unfamiliar.
● Cataton ic B ehaviou r → This is characterised by abnormal motor activity
where a person may experience loss of motor skills or extreme hyperactive motor
activity.
Negative Sym ptom s → Behaviours that represent the loss of normal experiences and
abilities.
● Speech Pover ty (Alogia) → The inability to speak properly, characterised by a
lack of ability to produce fluent words; this is thought to reflect slowing or
blocked thoughts. It can manifest itself as short and empty replies to questions.
● Aff ective Flaten in g (fl at em otion s) → This is when a person experiences a
reduction in the range of their emotional expressions, for example, tone of voice,
facial expressions, and eye contact.
● Avolition → A lack of purposeful/willed behaviour. A person lacks the will to
act.
● An hedon ia → a general loss of interest or pleasure in everyday activities and life.
, Reliability of Diagnosis
Reliability → the consistency of a research study or measuring test.
● If the diagnosis of SZ is reliable, we would expect a consistent diagnosis over
time (test-r etest) and between clinicians (in ter -r ater ).
Validity of Diagnosis
Validity → the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure and how
accurately the results can be applied and interpreted.
● If the diagnosis of SZ is valid, we expect a person to only be diagnosed if they
actually have schizophrenia
Cr iter ion validity → Refers to whether we are using accurate criteria in order to
diagnose schizophrenia. The diagnosis of schizophrenia can be heavily influenced by the
classification system used. For example, the DSM-V requires 1 positive symptom,
whereas the ICD-11 requires a minimum of 2 negative symptoms. This raises issues with
the classification and diagnosis of Schizophrenia as it means that Schizophrenia may be
over or underdiagnosed depending on the system used.
Com or bidity → People with schizophrenia often also experience another condition,
and thus, schizophrenia is commonly diagnosed alongside other conditions such as
depression. This raises problems with the validity of the diagnosis as it could mean that
both conditions are not entirely separate and instead should be classified as part of the
same diagnosis.
Sym ptom over lap → Symptoms associated with schizophrenia, such as avolition and
delusions, are also identified as symptoms of other conditions, such as bipolar disorder.
This is a problem when providing a diagnosis as the clinician cannot be certain which
condition the symptom relates to, which increases the likelihood of a misdiagnosis
being given, which in turn reduces the validity of the classification system used.
Gender bias (alpha bias) → This is the idea that the accuracy of diagnosis can vary
based on gender-biased diagnostic criteria and the gender of the clinician providing the
diagnosis. Some symptoms of schizophrenia are less apparent in females in comparison to
males, and this may be because females are genetically less vulnerable than males or
because females are able to manage them better due to having closer relationships and,
therefore, a support network. Consequently, this raises a problem for the diagnosis of
