Caregiver-infant interactions & the role
of the father
Caregiver-infant interactions
- Attachment is a two-way, enduring, emotional tie to a specific other
person.
- Interactions between an infant & caregiver are important for forming &
maintaining a healthy attachment between the caregiver and the infant.
Interactional synchrony
- Two people are said to be synchronised when they conduct the same
action, at the same time.
Evaluation of research into interactional synchrony
{interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures}
- Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical
contact or interactions with their infants.
- However, these infants often do form a secure attachment with their
mothers.
- This shows that interactional synchrony is not necessarily needed to form
a healthy attachment.
{Melzoff & Moore provide research support}
- They observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in infants as
young as two weeks old.
- An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of the distinctive
gestures.
- The child’s response was filmed and identified by observers.
- An association was found between the expression/gesture of the adult &
the actions of the babies.
- As this was an observation, there is a possibility meaning the observer
could interpret the data in a biased way, however, you can have more
than one individual observer rewatch the tapes to ensure good inter-rater
reliability.
[counter-argument]
- It can be difficult to tell if an infant is truly mimicking the caregiver as it
could simply be a con incidence while they are moving.
- The adult amy be anxious while being observed & the infant may pick up
on this, acting differently.
{Isabella et al. provides research support}
- Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers & infants together, assessing
the degrees of synchrony.
- The researchers also assessed the quality of the mother-infant
attachment.
- They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better
quality mother-infant attachment.
[counter-argument]
- It is not necessarily a large sample size, meaning the results are difficult to
generalise to the whole population.
- It is a correlation, meaning we cannot prove cause and effect; there could
be a third variable mediating the relationship between attachment quality
& degree of synchrony.
- They would need to make sure behaviour categories are well-
operationalised to assess the quality of attachment.
,Reciprocity
- Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ and they signal to the mother that they
are ready to interact. Caregivers successfully pick up on these signals
about 2/3 of the time.
- An interactional is reciprocal when each person takes a turn in
communication and elicits a response from the other person.
- According to Feldman (2007), reciprocity can be seen in interactions from
3 months of age.
Evaluation of research into reciprocity
{studies of reciprocity tend to make use of observational research}
- Observations, however, do not tell us the purpose of reciprocity; they
simply tell us it exits. This leads psychologists to hypothesis about the
importance of reciprocity, meaning we do not have a clear picture of the
role of reciprocity.
- The caregiver may change the way they interact with the infant because
they are being observed and/or filmed. On the other hand, the infant will
not be aware that they are being researched and so their behaviour will
not be affected by demand characteristics.
- Often observational researchers will record their participants from several
angles. This means that fine details of behaviour can be captured and
later analysed.
Evaluation of reciprocity & interactional synchrony
{research into reciprocity and interactional synchrony has led to practical
applications}
- Research is generally in agreement that reciprocity and interactional
synchrony aid the formation and maintenance of healthy attachments.
- Therapies can be used to help parents who have experienced disruption in
their attachment to their child – parents are encouraged to increase the
reciprocity and interactional synchrony in their interactions with their
children.
The role of the father
- Traditionally, fathers played a small role (if any) in child rearing. However,
the role of the father has changed considerably in the past few decades:
o Men are expected to play an equal role in child rearing, as women
often have full time jobs too.
o It is socially acceptable for men to be ‘stay at home’ dads.
o In 2002, it became legal for gay men to adopt children.
o In 2003, paid paternity leave was introduced which encourages men
to take a more ‘hands on’ approach to parenting.
- Some psychologists argue that men are biologically equipped to be just as
nurturing as women. However, others suggests their role is to stimulate
play.
Research into the role of the father
{there is research which shows that men can be just as nurturing as women}
- Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interaction with
primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary
caregiver fathers.
- Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating
and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers. These
behaviours appear to be important in building an attachment with the
infant.
, - This research suggests that fathers are just as important as mothers in
child rearing.
{there is research evidence that provides support for the role of the father as a
‘playmate’ rather than a primary caregiver.
- Research by Geiger (1996) found that a fathers’ play interactions were
more exciting in comparison to a mothers play interactions. However, the
mothers play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
- This suggests that the role of the father is as a playmate and not as a
sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children – mothers
play a more important role in the emotional development of a child.
{some research suggests that fathers do not play a pivotal role in child rearing}
- MacCallum & Golombok (2004) have found that children who grow up in
a single-mother household or a same-sex (lesbian) parent household do
not develop any differently to children with a father.
- This suggests that mothers play a more important role in child rearing.
{further research support suggests fathers do not play a pivotal role in child
rearing}
- Grossman’s (2002) research implied those who have a secure
attachment to their mother in infant hood are more likely to have secure
adolescent relationships (both romantic and platonic).
- The quality of the relationship with the father did not have an impact on
this correlation.
- This suggests that mothers play a more important role in child rearing.
Stages of attachment
[stranger anxiety] when an infant expresses distress when they are approached
by an unfamiliar adult.
[separation anxiety] when an infant expresses distress when their caregiver
leaves.
Schaffer & Emerson’s (1964) Glasgow study
- 60 babies from Glasgow (working-class families) were observed in their
own home in monthly intervals for the first 18 months of life.
- The research’s also asked the mother to self-report on their child’s
development.
- The aim was to learn more about the formations of attachment.
- Findings of the Glasgow study:
o Infants tended to form their first (primary) attachment to the
caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to the infants’
signals. This was not necessarily the caregiver whom the infant
spent the most time with.
o Babies, on average, were able to form several simultaneous
attachments by the age of 10 months.
o It was observed that the mother was the main attachment figure for
roughly half of the babies by the time they were 18 months old. The
father was the main attachment in most of the other cases.
o Based on this finding, Schaffer & Emerson concluded that being
sensitive and responsible is more important in attachment
development than physical care.
- From this research, Schaffer determined the stages of attachment.
Evaluation of Schaffer & Emerson’s study
{the study has reasonably good ecological validity}
of the father
Caregiver-infant interactions
- Attachment is a two-way, enduring, emotional tie to a specific other
person.
- Interactions between an infant & caregiver are important for forming &
maintaining a healthy attachment between the caregiver and the infant.
Interactional synchrony
- Two people are said to be synchronised when they conduct the same
action, at the same time.
Evaluation of research into interactional synchrony
{interactional synchrony is not found in all cultures}
- Le Vine et al. (1994) reported that Kenyan mothers have little physical
contact or interactions with their infants.
- However, these infants often do form a secure attachment with their
mothers.
- This shows that interactional synchrony is not necessarily needed to form
a healthy attachment.
{Melzoff & Moore provide research support}
- They observed the beginnings of interactional synchrony in infants as
young as two weeks old.
- An adult displayed one of three facial expressions or one of the distinctive
gestures.
- The child’s response was filmed and identified by observers.
- An association was found between the expression/gesture of the adult &
the actions of the babies.
- As this was an observation, there is a possibility meaning the observer
could interpret the data in a biased way, however, you can have more
than one individual observer rewatch the tapes to ensure good inter-rater
reliability.
[counter-argument]
- It can be difficult to tell if an infant is truly mimicking the caregiver as it
could simply be a con incidence while they are moving.
- The adult amy be anxious while being observed & the infant may pick up
on this, acting differently.
{Isabella et al. provides research support}
- Isabella et al. (1989) observed 30 mothers & infants together, assessing
the degrees of synchrony.
- The researchers also assessed the quality of the mother-infant
attachment.
- They found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better
quality mother-infant attachment.
[counter-argument]
- It is not necessarily a large sample size, meaning the results are difficult to
generalise to the whole population.
- It is a correlation, meaning we cannot prove cause and effect; there could
be a third variable mediating the relationship between attachment quality
& degree of synchrony.
- They would need to make sure behaviour categories are well-
operationalised to assess the quality of attachment.
,Reciprocity
- Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ and they signal to the mother that they
are ready to interact. Caregivers successfully pick up on these signals
about 2/3 of the time.
- An interactional is reciprocal when each person takes a turn in
communication and elicits a response from the other person.
- According to Feldman (2007), reciprocity can be seen in interactions from
3 months of age.
Evaluation of research into reciprocity
{studies of reciprocity tend to make use of observational research}
- Observations, however, do not tell us the purpose of reciprocity; they
simply tell us it exits. This leads psychologists to hypothesis about the
importance of reciprocity, meaning we do not have a clear picture of the
role of reciprocity.
- The caregiver may change the way they interact with the infant because
they are being observed and/or filmed. On the other hand, the infant will
not be aware that they are being researched and so their behaviour will
not be affected by demand characteristics.
- Often observational researchers will record their participants from several
angles. This means that fine details of behaviour can be captured and
later analysed.
Evaluation of reciprocity & interactional synchrony
{research into reciprocity and interactional synchrony has led to practical
applications}
- Research is generally in agreement that reciprocity and interactional
synchrony aid the formation and maintenance of healthy attachments.
- Therapies can be used to help parents who have experienced disruption in
their attachment to their child – parents are encouraged to increase the
reciprocity and interactional synchrony in their interactions with their
children.
The role of the father
- Traditionally, fathers played a small role (if any) in child rearing. However,
the role of the father has changed considerably in the past few decades:
o Men are expected to play an equal role in child rearing, as women
often have full time jobs too.
o It is socially acceptable for men to be ‘stay at home’ dads.
o In 2002, it became legal for gay men to adopt children.
o In 2003, paid paternity leave was introduced which encourages men
to take a more ‘hands on’ approach to parenting.
- Some psychologists argue that men are biologically equipped to be just as
nurturing as women. However, others suggests their role is to stimulate
play.
Research into the role of the father
{there is research which shows that men can be just as nurturing as women}
- Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face interaction with
primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary
caregiver fathers.
- Primary caregiver fathers, like mothers, spent more time smiling, imitating
and holding infants than the secondary caregiver fathers. These
behaviours appear to be important in building an attachment with the
infant.
, - This research suggests that fathers are just as important as mothers in
child rearing.
{there is research evidence that provides support for the role of the father as a
‘playmate’ rather than a primary caregiver.
- Research by Geiger (1996) found that a fathers’ play interactions were
more exciting in comparison to a mothers play interactions. However, the
mothers play interactions were more affectionate and nurturing.
- This suggests that the role of the father is as a playmate and not as a
sensitive parent who responds to the needs of their children – mothers
play a more important role in the emotional development of a child.
{some research suggests that fathers do not play a pivotal role in child rearing}
- MacCallum & Golombok (2004) have found that children who grow up in
a single-mother household or a same-sex (lesbian) parent household do
not develop any differently to children with a father.
- This suggests that mothers play a more important role in child rearing.
{further research support suggests fathers do not play a pivotal role in child
rearing}
- Grossman’s (2002) research implied those who have a secure
attachment to their mother in infant hood are more likely to have secure
adolescent relationships (both romantic and platonic).
- The quality of the relationship with the father did not have an impact on
this correlation.
- This suggests that mothers play a more important role in child rearing.
Stages of attachment
[stranger anxiety] when an infant expresses distress when they are approached
by an unfamiliar adult.
[separation anxiety] when an infant expresses distress when their caregiver
leaves.
Schaffer & Emerson’s (1964) Glasgow study
- 60 babies from Glasgow (working-class families) were observed in their
own home in monthly intervals for the first 18 months of life.
- The research’s also asked the mother to self-report on their child’s
development.
- The aim was to learn more about the formations of attachment.
- Findings of the Glasgow study:
o Infants tended to form their first (primary) attachment to the
caregiver who was most interactive and sensitive to the infants’
signals. This was not necessarily the caregiver whom the infant
spent the most time with.
o Babies, on average, were able to form several simultaneous
attachments by the age of 10 months.
o It was observed that the mother was the main attachment figure for
roughly half of the babies by the time they were 18 months old. The
father was the main attachment in most of the other cases.
o Based on this finding, Schaffer & Emerson concluded that being
sensitive and responsible is more important in attachment
development than physical care.
- From this research, Schaffer determined the stages of attachment.
Evaluation of Schaffer & Emerson’s study
{the study has reasonably good ecological validity}
