Durkheim - Scientific Method Applied to
Consensus
See people in society as having shared
Society Structural Durkheim – Individua
Much of his work aimed at demonstrating restraine
interests + society functioning on basis importance of organic solidarity + finding
theories:
Believed individuals had bio
of broad agreement on norms/values out what societies must do to achieve it by Functionali to be selfish + it was up to
using objective, scientific methods to find sm regulate these desires for b
out general laws that govern societies Too much freedom is bad
Durkheim of ‘progress’ could be ac
Founding father of Sociology cooperated rather than c
Believed social order was important as constrained individual selfishness
Realized as societies evolved, people became more individualistic so maintaining social order became problem scarce resources
for society (how social order was to be achieved in complex societies was one of chief concerns)
Parsons – organic analogy
Historical context (1858-1917) Idea society works like human body - institutions like or
First professor of Sociology - major works published in middle of modernity + industrialisation/ urbanisation of performing specific functions necessary to maintenance
France
Believed social changes in modernity threatened social order Institutions perform positive functions
• Promote Value Consensus (agreement around shared
His social research had two main concerns: basis for order in society - most important values are
• Wanted to ensure modern societies were harmonious + orderly ethic + belief in meritocracy
• Wanted to create science of society to generate knowledge about how to bring about social order • Family responsible for passing on basic norms/value
socialisation, stabilisation of adult personalities and
Durkheim – Individuals need to be restrained
people to escape pressures of modern life
Believed individuals had biological tendency to be selfish + it was up to society to
• Education integrates individuals into wider society p
regulate these desires for benefit of all
Too much freedom is bad + greater levels of ‘progress’ could be achieved if people belonging to wider society (shared history + languag
• Other institutions regulate individual behaviour throu
cooperated rather than competing over scarce resources
Societies must ensure naturally selfish tendencies are restrained by creating sense of preventing crime
social solidarity (making individuals feel part of something bigger) + Moral regulation
(teaching standards of acceptable behaviour) which rely on effective socialisation Parsons – Social evolu
Viewed social change as process of evolu
Achieving solidarity in advanced industrial society is difficult hunter-gatherer societies to complex indu
Argued solidarity + moral regulation achieved differently in primitive (solidarity happens
automatically) + advanced industrial societies (more difficult to achieve) Complex forms are better because more
changes in environment + harness talent
Primitive society (Feudal Britain before industrialisation) = small scale + no complex people as meritocratic) + able to survive
division of labour (people share reality/goals/religion + are closely reliant each other) Durkheim - Social Structure This is Darwinian – humans thrive mor
mechanical solidarity: based on similarity Believed: able to adapt environment to suit them
there was a social structure
Advanced Industrial society = Division of Labour becomes complex as people become Argued initially economic + technologica
made up of norms + values
less self-sufficient and more dependent on a larger number of people they do not know societies evolving but values later becom
(ability of religion to provide same moral codes to all individuals declines as people no longer which existed above level of
values of industrial societies superior t
lead same lives) individual
societies because allow a society to be
social structure consisted of stresses importance of family/educatio
Modern societies risk excessive individualism + ‘crisis of moral regulation’/ ‘anomie’ ‘social facts‘ – phenomena together advanced society
Problem of achieving ‘organic solidarity’ (based on difference) external to individual +
Given decline of religion, labour organisations + education provide society with moral constrained ways of acting
regulation in industrial societies (education teaches diverse skills for advanced division of
labour + shared norms through subjects like history/shared assemblies)
, Is it still relevant today?
Idea that we can look at society as system + parts are interdependent
is assumption made by governments who inject money into
education/welfare to achieve desired result.
Idea that we can help countries develop from primitive to advanced via
aid is still common idea + many in developing world aspire to become
like Western countries
Statistics still reveal correlations between position in social structure +
chances of something like educational success
Parsons – Functional prerequisites
Believed societies had functional prerequisites (things needed
e.g. must produce + distribute resources like food + some k
organisation that resolves conflicts and socialise the young
Structural Parsons says social system has 4 needs for survival – adaptatio
attainment, integration and latency.
theories: In advanced industrial society they are met through special
Functionali systems
sm Sociologists studied thousands societies to discover any univer
institutions
Murdock (1940) - family exists in every society
Davis & Moore (1960) - some form of stratification system in
society
Levy (1952) – all need mechanism for reproducing new mem
Criticisms
• Is there really a ‘structure’ that exists independently of individuals
• Difficult to assess effects of institutions (impossible to isolate effects
of an institution on other things)
• Exaggerates extent of Value consensus + Social Order – Parsons
assumes value consensus exists but doesn’t prove it
• Mann argues social stability is due to lack of consensus not consensus Merton – manifest + laten
(If everyone believed in value of achievement there may be disorder In times of drought Hopi native
because not everyone can get highest reward (social stability is more perform rain dance (manifest f
likely if people at bottom of society tuned out which is majority) Ritual may have unintended
• Deterministic – behaviour portrayed as shaped by social system as if
function of promoting solida
individuals programmed by institutions
• Ignores conflict + coercion – Marxists argue mainstream social values hardship
are that of elite so social order imposed on majority by small group of
elite actors Shows hidden connections bet
• Ideological – conservative social theory as argues certain institutions phenomena which actors may
are necessary which focuses on positive functions of
, Althusser – scientific Marxism
Revolution + communism Structural Structuralist Marxists - social structures shape huma
Marx argued after overthrowing the Bourgeoisie
society would organise itself along Communist theories: should research structures not individuals
most important structural Marxist thinker Althusser (1918-9
lines (means of production collectively owned with
no private property + everyone has equal wealth)
Marxism French Communist Party (rejects economic determinism + h
vague about what Communist society looks like
Criticism of the base-superstructure model
but ‘each would give according to ability + take
In this model there is one-way causality (economic level de
according to needs’ so there would be more free
Point of social research In Althusser’s model political level + ideological level have
time
Marx discovered that over time, degree of economic level + have two-way causality
exploitation of workers increased - theorised
Exploitation Capitalism would lead to human misery so must Althusser’s model
Amount of money employer pays worker is less one day come to end •Economic level – activities which involve producing some
than total value of goods worker produces believed political action necessary to ‘wake up’ •Political level – all forms of organisation
(difference between them = surplus value) proletariat + bring them to revolutionary class •Ideological level – ways people see themselves + world
Marx says capitalists extracts surplus value consciousness
from worker + profit is accumulated spent much of his life in efforts to bring
exploitation of workers in capitalist society revolutionary change Ideological + repressive state apparatus
Economic level dominates in capitalism but political + ideol
perform indispensable functions (workers socialised into wo
Bourgeoisie + Proletariat
rebel punished)
Under Capitalism there are 2 basic classes
Control of Economic Base (Bourgeoise + Proletariat) + their relationship to
(superstructure) Althusser’s model - state performs political + ideolog
private property defines them
Marx - those who have economic power control Bourgeoisie own Capital (resources like land, ensure reproduction of capitalism (divides state into
other institutions (Voting was restricted to men • Repressive State Apparatus – ‘armed bodies’ like police/army
factories + money which are used to make
with property/ Press Barons used papers to rebellion
profit - principle source of income) • Ideological State Apparatus – media + education (difficult to
spread propaganda/ only kids of the wealthy Proletariat own no capital – must sell labour
went uni) for extended time + more effective tactic is to manipulate way
power to Bourgeoisie
false consciousness)
Alienation
Under Capitalism workers becomes alienated from When Marx talked about ‘private property’ -
Criticisms of humanism
process of production, people he works with + privately owned capital that is invested not
Structuralist Marxists - free will + creativity is illusion (every
products they produce (lacks control over work + someone owning tools/house in which they lived
underlying social structures)
becomesIdeological
‘machine’) state apparatus
Society is puppet theatre + we are puppets + unseen struc
Marx argued
Bourgeoise Capitalism
use control would eventually
of institutions to keepcreate
puppet master determining thoughts and actions
socialignorant
masses conditions that cause downfall
of exploitation (ideological
To stay competitive, Capitalists sell goods at
control)
lower Althusser - socialism will not come about via change in cons
Marx -prices
mainly(reduced
done viaprofit)
Mass Media + Religion
This theory that organic intellectuals will figure out ways of bring
encourages
Results Capitalists to reduce
in False Consciousness wages
(not being +
aware
myth because all ideas are determined by Capitalist structu
increase efficiency
of true class (making working
position/exploitation conditions
in state of
ideas to emerge that threaten its existence)
of proletariat worse)
illusion)
Marx theorised high numbers of exploited
Instead socialism will come about via crisis of capitalism - s
proletarians in expanding cities would lead to
needs to happen first so something new can be built
violent revolution where proletariat throw off
oppressors
Evaluating Althusser
• Humanistic Marxists - discourages political activism beca
there is little individuals can do to change society
• Ignores the fact active struggles of working classes chan
better in many countries
Consensus
See people in society as having shared
Society Structural Durkheim – Individua
Much of his work aimed at demonstrating restraine
interests + society functioning on basis importance of organic solidarity + finding
theories:
Believed individuals had bio
of broad agreement on norms/values out what societies must do to achieve it by Functionali to be selfish + it was up to
using objective, scientific methods to find sm regulate these desires for b
out general laws that govern societies Too much freedom is bad
Durkheim of ‘progress’ could be ac
Founding father of Sociology cooperated rather than c
Believed social order was important as constrained individual selfishness
Realized as societies evolved, people became more individualistic so maintaining social order became problem scarce resources
for society (how social order was to be achieved in complex societies was one of chief concerns)
Parsons – organic analogy
Historical context (1858-1917) Idea society works like human body - institutions like or
First professor of Sociology - major works published in middle of modernity + industrialisation/ urbanisation of performing specific functions necessary to maintenance
France
Believed social changes in modernity threatened social order Institutions perform positive functions
• Promote Value Consensus (agreement around shared
His social research had two main concerns: basis for order in society - most important values are
• Wanted to ensure modern societies were harmonious + orderly ethic + belief in meritocracy
• Wanted to create science of society to generate knowledge about how to bring about social order • Family responsible for passing on basic norms/value
socialisation, stabilisation of adult personalities and
Durkheim – Individuals need to be restrained
people to escape pressures of modern life
Believed individuals had biological tendency to be selfish + it was up to society to
• Education integrates individuals into wider society p
regulate these desires for benefit of all
Too much freedom is bad + greater levels of ‘progress’ could be achieved if people belonging to wider society (shared history + languag
• Other institutions regulate individual behaviour throu
cooperated rather than competing over scarce resources
Societies must ensure naturally selfish tendencies are restrained by creating sense of preventing crime
social solidarity (making individuals feel part of something bigger) + Moral regulation
(teaching standards of acceptable behaviour) which rely on effective socialisation Parsons – Social evolu
Viewed social change as process of evolu
Achieving solidarity in advanced industrial society is difficult hunter-gatherer societies to complex indu
Argued solidarity + moral regulation achieved differently in primitive (solidarity happens
automatically) + advanced industrial societies (more difficult to achieve) Complex forms are better because more
changes in environment + harness talent
Primitive society (Feudal Britain before industrialisation) = small scale + no complex people as meritocratic) + able to survive
division of labour (people share reality/goals/religion + are closely reliant each other) Durkheim - Social Structure This is Darwinian – humans thrive mor
mechanical solidarity: based on similarity Believed: able to adapt environment to suit them
there was a social structure
Advanced Industrial society = Division of Labour becomes complex as people become Argued initially economic + technologica
made up of norms + values
less self-sufficient and more dependent on a larger number of people they do not know societies evolving but values later becom
(ability of religion to provide same moral codes to all individuals declines as people no longer which existed above level of
values of industrial societies superior t
lead same lives) individual
societies because allow a society to be
social structure consisted of stresses importance of family/educatio
Modern societies risk excessive individualism + ‘crisis of moral regulation’/ ‘anomie’ ‘social facts‘ – phenomena together advanced society
Problem of achieving ‘organic solidarity’ (based on difference) external to individual +
Given decline of religion, labour organisations + education provide society with moral constrained ways of acting
regulation in industrial societies (education teaches diverse skills for advanced division of
labour + shared norms through subjects like history/shared assemblies)
, Is it still relevant today?
Idea that we can look at society as system + parts are interdependent
is assumption made by governments who inject money into
education/welfare to achieve desired result.
Idea that we can help countries develop from primitive to advanced via
aid is still common idea + many in developing world aspire to become
like Western countries
Statistics still reveal correlations between position in social structure +
chances of something like educational success
Parsons – Functional prerequisites
Believed societies had functional prerequisites (things needed
e.g. must produce + distribute resources like food + some k
organisation that resolves conflicts and socialise the young
Structural Parsons says social system has 4 needs for survival – adaptatio
attainment, integration and latency.
theories: In advanced industrial society they are met through special
Functionali systems
sm Sociologists studied thousands societies to discover any univer
institutions
Murdock (1940) - family exists in every society
Davis & Moore (1960) - some form of stratification system in
society
Levy (1952) – all need mechanism for reproducing new mem
Criticisms
• Is there really a ‘structure’ that exists independently of individuals
• Difficult to assess effects of institutions (impossible to isolate effects
of an institution on other things)
• Exaggerates extent of Value consensus + Social Order – Parsons
assumes value consensus exists but doesn’t prove it
• Mann argues social stability is due to lack of consensus not consensus Merton – manifest + laten
(If everyone believed in value of achievement there may be disorder In times of drought Hopi native
because not everyone can get highest reward (social stability is more perform rain dance (manifest f
likely if people at bottom of society tuned out which is majority) Ritual may have unintended
• Deterministic – behaviour portrayed as shaped by social system as if
function of promoting solida
individuals programmed by institutions
• Ignores conflict + coercion – Marxists argue mainstream social values hardship
are that of elite so social order imposed on majority by small group of
elite actors Shows hidden connections bet
• Ideological – conservative social theory as argues certain institutions phenomena which actors may
are necessary which focuses on positive functions of
, Althusser – scientific Marxism
Revolution + communism Structural Structuralist Marxists - social structures shape huma
Marx argued after overthrowing the Bourgeoisie
society would organise itself along Communist theories: should research structures not individuals
most important structural Marxist thinker Althusser (1918-9
lines (means of production collectively owned with
no private property + everyone has equal wealth)
Marxism French Communist Party (rejects economic determinism + h
vague about what Communist society looks like
Criticism of the base-superstructure model
but ‘each would give according to ability + take
In this model there is one-way causality (economic level de
according to needs’ so there would be more free
Point of social research In Althusser’s model political level + ideological level have
time
Marx discovered that over time, degree of economic level + have two-way causality
exploitation of workers increased - theorised
Exploitation Capitalism would lead to human misery so must Althusser’s model
Amount of money employer pays worker is less one day come to end •Economic level – activities which involve producing some
than total value of goods worker produces believed political action necessary to ‘wake up’ •Political level – all forms of organisation
(difference between them = surplus value) proletariat + bring them to revolutionary class •Ideological level – ways people see themselves + world
Marx says capitalists extracts surplus value consciousness
from worker + profit is accumulated spent much of his life in efforts to bring
exploitation of workers in capitalist society revolutionary change Ideological + repressive state apparatus
Economic level dominates in capitalism but political + ideol
perform indispensable functions (workers socialised into wo
Bourgeoisie + Proletariat
rebel punished)
Under Capitalism there are 2 basic classes
Control of Economic Base (Bourgeoise + Proletariat) + their relationship to
(superstructure) Althusser’s model - state performs political + ideolog
private property defines them
Marx - those who have economic power control Bourgeoisie own Capital (resources like land, ensure reproduction of capitalism (divides state into
other institutions (Voting was restricted to men • Repressive State Apparatus – ‘armed bodies’ like police/army
factories + money which are used to make
with property/ Press Barons used papers to rebellion
profit - principle source of income) • Ideological State Apparatus – media + education (difficult to
spread propaganda/ only kids of the wealthy Proletariat own no capital – must sell labour
went uni) for extended time + more effective tactic is to manipulate way
power to Bourgeoisie
false consciousness)
Alienation
Under Capitalism workers becomes alienated from When Marx talked about ‘private property’ -
Criticisms of humanism
process of production, people he works with + privately owned capital that is invested not
Structuralist Marxists - free will + creativity is illusion (every
products they produce (lacks control over work + someone owning tools/house in which they lived
underlying social structures)
becomesIdeological
‘machine’) state apparatus
Society is puppet theatre + we are puppets + unseen struc
Marx argued
Bourgeoise Capitalism
use control would eventually
of institutions to keepcreate
puppet master determining thoughts and actions
socialignorant
masses conditions that cause downfall
of exploitation (ideological
To stay competitive, Capitalists sell goods at
control)
lower Althusser - socialism will not come about via change in cons
Marx -prices
mainly(reduced
done viaprofit)
Mass Media + Religion
This theory that organic intellectuals will figure out ways of bring
encourages
Results Capitalists to reduce
in False Consciousness wages
(not being +
aware
myth because all ideas are determined by Capitalist structu
increase efficiency
of true class (making working
position/exploitation conditions
in state of
ideas to emerge that threaten its existence)
of proletariat worse)
illusion)
Marx theorised high numbers of exploited
Instead socialism will come about via crisis of capitalism - s
proletarians in expanding cities would lead to
needs to happen first so something new can be built
violent revolution where proletariat throw off
oppressors
Evaluating Althusser
• Humanistic Marxists - discourages political activism beca
there is little individuals can do to change society
• Ignores the fact active struggles of working classes chan
better in many countries
