Why do social research? Subjective + Objective Knowledge in Social Secondary data = collected by previous researchers/ organisatio
Without it - knowledge of social world is Research ✅ Time + Cost Efficient – Saves resources by using data alread
limited to immediate + limited life domain
Research is carefully planned + conducted ✅ Larger Sample Sizes – broad representative datasets (nation
experiences using established procedures to ensure ✅ Allows for Historical + Comparative Analysis – track socia
cannot know answer to basic questions like ✅ Useful for Hypothesis Testing – Large datasets help identify
knowledge is objective
how many people live in UK let alone where info is gathered reflects what is really ‘out + patterns
answers to complex questions about why ❌ May Not Fit Research Needs – Data collected for another pu
there’ in social world not ‘subjective’ (only align perfectly with new study
WC kids get worse results at school/ why reflects narrow opinions of researchers) ❌ Data Quality + Reliability Issues – no control over how data
crime rate falling every year since 1995 Systematic + rigorous use of research methods biases/errors
describes social world + finds what people ❌ Outdated – may no longer reflect current social conditions
makes sociological knowledge ‘objective’
think about social issues which varies
Primary data = collected first hand by researcher conducting un
across social groups/ regions Most Sociologists believe we should strive to make research using specific research questions so tailors research meth
Most research has aim of going beyond wants
data collection as objective as possible BUT
mere description (limit themselves to Phenomenologists argue its not possible to collect ✅ Specific + Relevant – Collected directly for study’s purpose
specific research topic to achieve aim or ✅ Up to Date – Reflects current social trends
purely objective data (researcher’s opinions always ✅ Control Over Data Collection – design methodology ensurin
answer specific question) get in way of what data is collected + filtered for reliability
publication) ❌ Time Consuming + Costly – Requires significant effort, plann
❌ Limited Sample Size – Practical constraints prevent large-sca
They seek to understand how things appear to affecting generalizability
Interpretivists vs Positivists human consciousness ❌ Ethical + Access Challenges – Some populations difficult to
Basic approaches to research methods Quantitative
groups) data =
+ ethical concerns infobeinaddressed
must numerical form (statistics)
Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods ❌ Potential
✅ Enables for generalization
Researcher Biasto –larger
Interviewer influence/
populations vialeadin
stat
Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods responses
✅ Uses standardized methods ensuring high reliability
✅ Facilitates comparison over time + across different g
Positivism ✅ Allows for identification of patterns, correlations + c
Social facts shape individual action ❌ Lacks depth + context (can't explain reason behind p
Introduced by Comte in The Enlightenment (1650 to 1800 when authority ❌ Reductive as misses complexity of human experienc
of church challenged as people started to believe knowledge should be ❌ Rigid research designs with predefined variables ov
derived from science not God) social phenomena
Sociology can + should use same methods to study social world that ❌ Data collection may be influenced by flawed measu
“natural” sciences use to investigate physical world (“scientific” designed survey)
techniques uncover laws that govern societies)
Stresses quantitative methods with good reliability + representativeness to Qualitative data = info in written/visual/audio form (tr
get overview of society as whole + uncover social trends (patterns not interviews + newspapers + websites
individuals) possible to analyse it + display features numerically
Look for relationships/ ‘correlations’ between variables (comparative ✅ In-depth insights into social behaviours + experienc
method) ✅ Captures context + subjectivity which numbers may
✅ Flexible data collection methods (ethnography) allow
Interpretivists unexpected themes
individuals not just puppets who react to external social forces (complex ✅ Useful for studying small groups/ subcultures/ marg
beings who experience same ‘objective reality’ in different ways + have own communities where statistical representation is less imp
reasons for acting so scientific methods not appropriate) ❌ Time-consuming + expensive to collect/analyse
Qualitative methods derive from ‘social action theory‘ ❌ Findings may lack generalizability due to small, non
To understand human action we must achieve ‘Verstehen‘ (empathetic ❌ Subjectivity in analysis leads to researcher bias
understanding + seeing world through eyes of actors) ❌ Difficult to replicate results - reduced reliability
Criticise ‘scientific sociology’ (Positivism) because many statistics it relies
on are socially constructed
, Sampling methods Stages of research
Target Population – All people who could potentially be studied Prep for data collection + analysis post-collection takes more time than actual gathering
Process varies depending on topic + situation of researcher but these are common to m
Sampling Frame – List of every member of target pop from which sample is drawn (Wilmott + Young used electoral roll)
Must be complete + accurate to be representative 1. Deciding on a topic to research and narrowing down a field of study
As general rule Sociologists focus on 1 broad subject area which they specialise in 1 sub-top
Research sample – Actual population selected for research (respondents) researching relationship between class/ gender + identity in education BUT Sewell focused
Representative if characteristics of sample reflect characteristics of target population in education system)
Microsociologists less concerned with representative with representative sample because don’t generalise
2. Doing an extensive literature review
Customary to do extensive review of existing research relevant to topic before undertak
Random sampling
• Make sure no one else already done it
All members of target pop have equal chance of being selected (complete list obtained + names assigned number then
• Develop existing knowledge + theories
sample generated through lottery method like computer generator)
• Find ideas about questions to ask participants
✅ No researcher bias • Find ideas for conducting research
✅ Preferred by positivists because is representative if sufficient size + generalisable • Uncover potential problems you may encounter during research process
✅ Quick + easy
❌ Hard + time-consuming to ensure everyone in TP has equal chance 3. Devising research questions + operationalising concepts
❌ Individuals picked may not be willing Positivists
❌ Sample may not be generalisable if coincidentally everyone picked shares characteristic (e.g. male) Aim to conduct research using methods of natural sciences (easily quantified + correlati
uncovered)
Opportunity (convenience) sampling Start with narrow research agenda seeking to find how few IV’s effect DV (what aspects
Choosing those available + willing to participate (asks anyone around at time like market research on street) correlated with educational success)
✅ Practical because requires less effort + cheap to obtain So must think up questions in advance
❌ Researcher bias as sample drawn from specific area which may not be representative of TP (near uni may be all Operationalising concepts in advance is crucial
students) Interpretivists
Interested in qualitative data + want to hear respondents in own words
❌ Investigator bias as has complete control of who to approach + may avoid some according to subjective preferences
Just need general aim + idea of sort of questions + sensitive ways of prompting for furth
Stratified sampling 4. Selecting a sample of the population to be studied
Identifies + works out proportion of subgroups in TP + random sample of each subgroup taken (in school 10% are teachers Process of selecting section of population to take part in social research
so 10% of sample are teachers)
✅ No researcher bias as sample generated randomly once subgroups identified so representative 5. Conducting a pilot study
❌ Time-consuming + difficult to ensure all sub-groups accurately identified Test study in advance of actual study
❌ subgroups can’t reflect all individual differences between those in TP so not truly representative • Find possible practical difficulties before actual research
• See if questions make sense to respondents
Snowball sampling • See if response rates differ between groups (may need ‘booster’ sample of under-repres
Collect key individuals who suggest others to participate until enough data collected • Familiarise with respondents to feel more at ease doing actual research
✅ Useful way to gain sample of people who may be difficult to find/persuade (criminals0 Easier with quantitative methods + may not be possible with in-depth, qualitative
✅ Can access large number of people
❌ Not representative of TP 6. Carrying out the research (gathering data)
PET issues apply
For positivist inspired quantitative researchers this is relatively easy phase (don’t need t
Systematic sampling
just look at response rates + prompt certain groups to respond as necessary)
Every nth member of TP selected (sampling frame organised into an order + nth number selected by dividing TP size by Difficult with qualitative research where researcher involved with respondents (how to re
desired sample size) interviews + field diary for observational studies)
✅ No researcher bias
✅ most representative when sampling frame randomised (systematic random sampling) but still representative when 7. Interpreting + analysing findings
listed Positivist researchers use closed pre-coded questions so fed straight into computer whic
❌ Possible to have under/over-representation of some social groups it into statistics automatically (presented in form of graph to easily see relationship)
Interpretivist research may be thousands sides of notes + takes longer to analyse + not
Quota sampling statistics
Like stratified but without element of random selection so less reliable (e.g. survey 100 women)
✅ more representative than other methods 8. Publication + follow up tasks
During final write up they comment on whether data supports/refutes existing theories (
❌ Unreliable + bias
❌ Time-consuming + hard to ensure all subgroups are accurately identified theoretical debates)
Feed back to respondents + take views on board (challenging in Interpretivist research w
❌ Subgroups can’t reflect all individual differences between those in TP so not truly representative
with info selected for publication
Volunteer sampling 9. Using research data
Participants select themselves to be part of sample (self-selection via ad in newspaper/ raising hand when asked) Should they publicize findings to broader public or leave this to employers + media?
✅ Minimal effort from researcher as participants approach them Should they get involved in government policy?
✅ Less likely to withdraw as willing to participate
❌ Bias as often particular type of person that volunteers (curious/confident) + only those who see advert can respond so
unrepresentative
Without it - knowledge of social world is Research ✅ Time + Cost Efficient – Saves resources by using data alread
limited to immediate + limited life domain
Research is carefully planned + conducted ✅ Larger Sample Sizes – broad representative datasets (nation
experiences using established procedures to ensure ✅ Allows for Historical + Comparative Analysis – track socia
cannot know answer to basic questions like ✅ Useful for Hypothesis Testing – Large datasets help identify
knowledge is objective
how many people live in UK let alone where info is gathered reflects what is really ‘out + patterns
answers to complex questions about why ❌ May Not Fit Research Needs – Data collected for another pu
there’ in social world not ‘subjective’ (only align perfectly with new study
WC kids get worse results at school/ why reflects narrow opinions of researchers) ❌ Data Quality + Reliability Issues – no control over how data
crime rate falling every year since 1995 Systematic + rigorous use of research methods biases/errors
describes social world + finds what people ❌ Outdated – may no longer reflect current social conditions
makes sociological knowledge ‘objective’
think about social issues which varies
Primary data = collected first hand by researcher conducting un
across social groups/ regions Most Sociologists believe we should strive to make research using specific research questions so tailors research meth
Most research has aim of going beyond wants
data collection as objective as possible BUT
mere description (limit themselves to Phenomenologists argue its not possible to collect ✅ Specific + Relevant – Collected directly for study’s purpose
specific research topic to achieve aim or ✅ Up to Date – Reflects current social trends
purely objective data (researcher’s opinions always ✅ Control Over Data Collection – design methodology ensurin
answer specific question) get in way of what data is collected + filtered for reliability
publication) ❌ Time Consuming + Costly – Requires significant effort, plann
❌ Limited Sample Size – Practical constraints prevent large-sca
They seek to understand how things appear to affecting generalizability
Interpretivists vs Positivists human consciousness ❌ Ethical + Access Challenges – Some populations difficult to
Basic approaches to research methods Quantitative
groups) data =
+ ethical concerns infobeinaddressed
must numerical form (statistics)
Positivist prefer scientific quantitative methods ❌ Potential
✅ Enables for generalization
Researcher Biasto –larger
Interviewer influence/
populations vialeadin
stat
Interpretivists prefer humanistic qualitative methods responses
✅ Uses standardized methods ensuring high reliability
✅ Facilitates comparison over time + across different g
Positivism ✅ Allows for identification of patterns, correlations + c
Social facts shape individual action ❌ Lacks depth + context (can't explain reason behind p
Introduced by Comte in The Enlightenment (1650 to 1800 when authority ❌ Reductive as misses complexity of human experienc
of church challenged as people started to believe knowledge should be ❌ Rigid research designs with predefined variables ov
derived from science not God) social phenomena
Sociology can + should use same methods to study social world that ❌ Data collection may be influenced by flawed measu
“natural” sciences use to investigate physical world (“scientific” designed survey)
techniques uncover laws that govern societies)
Stresses quantitative methods with good reliability + representativeness to Qualitative data = info in written/visual/audio form (tr
get overview of society as whole + uncover social trends (patterns not interviews + newspapers + websites
individuals) possible to analyse it + display features numerically
Look for relationships/ ‘correlations’ between variables (comparative ✅ In-depth insights into social behaviours + experienc
method) ✅ Captures context + subjectivity which numbers may
✅ Flexible data collection methods (ethnography) allow
Interpretivists unexpected themes
individuals not just puppets who react to external social forces (complex ✅ Useful for studying small groups/ subcultures/ marg
beings who experience same ‘objective reality’ in different ways + have own communities where statistical representation is less imp
reasons for acting so scientific methods not appropriate) ❌ Time-consuming + expensive to collect/analyse
Qualitative methods derive from ‘social action theory‘ ❌ Findings may lack generalizability due to small, non
To understand human action we must achieve ‘Verstehen‘ (empathetic ❌ Subjectivity in analysis leads to researcher bias
understanding + seeing world through eyes of actors) ❌ Difficult to replicate results - reduced reliability
Criticise ‘scientific sociology’ (Positivism) because many statistics it relies
on are socially constructed
, Sampling methods Stages of research
Target Population – All people who could potentially be studied Prep for data collection + analysis post-collection takes more time than actual gathering
Process varies depending on topic + situation of researcher but these are common to m
Sampling Frame – List of every member of target pop from which sample is drawn (Wilmott + Young used electoral roll)
Must be complete + accurate to be representative 1. Deciding on a topic to research and narrowing down a field of study
As general rule Sociologists focus on 1 broad subject area which they specialise in 1 sub-top
Research sample – Actual population selected for research (respondents) researching relationship between class/ gender + identity in education BUT Sewell focused
Representative if characteristics of sample reflect characteristics of target population in education system)
Microsociologists less concerned with representative with representative sample because don’t generalise
2. Doing an extensive literature review
Customary to do extensive review of existing research relevant to topic before undertak
Random sampling
• Make sure no one else already done it
All members of target pop have equal chance of being selected (complete list obtained + names assigned number then
• Develop existing knowledge + theories
sample generated through lottery method like computer generator)
• Find ideas about questions to ask participants
✅ No researcher bias • Find ideas for conducting research
✅ Preferred by positivists because is representative if sufficient size + generalisable • Uncover potential problems you may encounter during research process
✅ Quick + easy
❌ Hard + time-consuming to ensure everyone in TP has equal chance 3. Devising research questions + operationalising concepts
❌ Individuals picked may not be willing Positivists
❌ Sample may not be generalisable if coincidentally everyone picked shares characteristic (e.g. male) Aim to conduct research using methods of natural sciences (easily quantified + correlati
uncovered)
Opportunity (convenience) sampling Start with narrow research agenda seeking to find how few IV’s effect DV (what aspects
Choosing those available + willing to participate (asks anyone around at time like market research on street) correlated with educational success)
✅ Practical because requires less effort + cheap to obtain So must think up questions in advance
❌ Researcher bias as sample drawn from specific area which may not be representative of TP (near uni may be all Operationalising concepts in advance is crucial
students) Interpretivists
Interested in qualitative data + want to hear respondents in own words
❌ Investigator bias as has complete control of who to approach + may avoid some according to subjective preferences
Just need general aim + idea of sort of questions + sensitive ways of prompting for furth
Stratified sampling 4. Selecting a sample of the population to be studied
Identifies + works out proportion of subgroups in TP + random sample of each subgroup taken (in school 10% are teachers Process of selecting section of population to take part in social research
so 10% of sample are teachers)
✅ No researcher bias as sample generated randomly once subgroups identified so representative 5. Conducting a pilot study
❌ Time-consuming + difficult to ensure all sub-groups accurately identified Test study in advance of actual study
❌ subgroups can’t reflect all individual differences between those in TP so not truly representative • Find possible practical difficulties before actual research
• See if questions make sense to respondents
Snowball sampling • See if response rates differ between groups (may need ‘booster’ sample of under-repres
Collect key individuals who suggest others to participate until enough data collected • Familiarise with respondents to feel more at ease doing actual research
✅ Useful way to gain sample of people who may be difficult to find/persuade (criminals0 Easier with quantitative methods + may not be possible with in-depth, qualitative
✅ Can access large number of people
❌ Not representative of TP 6. Carrying out the research (gathering data)
PET issues apply
For positivist inspired quantitative researchers this is relatively easy phase (don’t need t
Systematic sampling
just look at response rates + prompt certain groups to respond as necessary)
Every nth member of TP selected (sampling frame organised into an order + nth number selected by dividing TP size by Difficult with qualitative research where researcher involved with respondents (how to re
desired sample size) interviews + field diary for observational studies)
✅ No researcher bias
✅ most representative when sampling frame randomised (systematic random sampling) but still representative when 7. Interpreting + analysing findings
listed Positivist researchers use closed pre-coded questions so fed straight into computer whic
❌ Possible to have under/over-representation of some social groups it into statistics automatically (presented in form of graph to easily see relationship)
Interpretivist research may be thousands sides of notes + takes longer to analyse + not
Quota sampling statistics
Like stratified but without element of random selection so less reliable (e.g. survey 100 women)
✅ more representative than other methods 8. Publication + follow up tasks
During final write up they comment on whether data supports/refutes existing theories (
❌ Unreliable + bias
❌ Time-consuming + hard to ensure all subgroups are accurately identified theoretical debates)
Feed back to respondents + take views on board (challenging in Interpretivist research w
❌ Subgroups can’t reflect all individual differences between those in TP so not truly representative
with info selected for publication
Volunteer sampling 9. Using research data
Participants select themselves to be part of sample (self-selection via ad in newspaper/ raising hand when asked) Should they publicize findings to broader public or leave this to employers + media?
✅ Minimal effort from researcher as participants approach them Should they get involved in government policy?
✅ Less likely to withdraw as willing to participate
❌ Bias as often particular type of person that volunteers (curious/confident) + only those who see advert can respond so
unrepresentative
