Durkheim Davis (1967)
Crime is inevitable part of healthy society because: Prostitution is safety valve that helps r
1. Everyone socialised differently + some not sexual frustrations without threatening
effectively (poor socialisation means they accept nuclear family
deviant norms + values instead of those in mainstream (Feminists criticise because ignores wom
society) frustrations) Erikson (1966)
2. Modern society is complex especially cities +
Argues if deviance has positive functio
many cultures/ lifestyles in concentrated area
must be organised to promote it
which causes formation of subcultures that may
have norms + values that oppose mainstream Student rag weeks to allow behaviour
society (African cultures its acceptable to eat with punished which may give leeway to co
hands but mainstream European society may see this growing up
as deviant) Cohen
Deviance acts as warning that an instit
Boundary maintenance functioning effectively
Value consensus reinforced through policing of the Policy-makers know to change to sch
margins (those seen as deviant) using formal high
(imprisonment) + informal (social condemnation)
sanctions to punish those who refuse to conform
Shared disapproval of crime strengthens social solidarity Polsky
(feeling of unit/ joint purpose) + public’s commitment to Pornography safely channels away des
norms & values Functionalist that would threaten family (adultery)
Argues even in ‘society of saints’ there would be explanations of
deviance as behaviour considered as this varies
between societies (some US states you can be fined for
crime &
grass being too long) deviance Evaluation
• Explains how crime can be integral to society’s run
Social change • Often after major crimes communities unite to con
Crime & deviance acts as catalyst to challenge which reinforces social solidarity (Public Vigils and
current laws/norms to encourage necessary changes 2024 Southport stabbings)
in society, so it doesn’t stagnate (legalising same- • Doesn’t establish correct amount of crime
sex marriage UK 2013) • Deterministic
Although functionalists promote incremental organic • Effects of functions on victims of crime ignored (m
change over radical change valve ignores illegally trafficked women for sex wo
• Crime doesn’t always promote solidarity (women f
Says too much/little deviance was bad for society as during Yorkshire ripper attacks)
it affects social order (less deviance in pre-industrial • Durkheim talks about crime in general terms (theo
society due to mechanical solidarity of society as
‘crime’ is necessary + even functional but fails to
nature of economy + society meant social bonds
between different types of crime when some may
were tight)
Increased isolation + privatised nature of modern that will always be dysfunctional)
industrialised societies increased likelihood of deviance • Theory is teleological (operates reverse logic by tu
(even more now than time of his writing) into cause as in reality cause of crime is dysfunctio
vice versa)
Also argued increased deviance when societies
undergo rapid change (industrialisation 18th century)
due to anomie (state of normlessness + absence of social
cohesion)
, Merton (1938) – Strain theory Functionalist Cloward + Ohlin (1960)
People turn to deviance when can't achieve
socially accepted goals by legitimate means explanations of subculture
Combines structural factors (unequal crime & Combine Merton + Cohen to
opportunities) + cultural factors (strong different criminal subculture
deviance contemporary America
emphasis on success through consumer culture/
Argue there is a legitimat
social media)
American culture (individualistic) values structure (echoing Merton
financial success based on meritocracy – means)
Also identify alternative i
American Dream
Some in society denied opportunities to achieve opportunity structure thr
so pushed to deviance (PoC face discrimination membership
Could be strain in illegitim
in hiring/promotion)
structures if no existing c
Deviant adaptations to strain: subcultures locally (expla
1. Conformity accepts culturally approved goals who have blocked legitim
+ strives to achieve them through legitimate structures turn to crime)
means (MC worker with degree)
2. Innovation accepts goals but uses Deviant subcultures
illegitimate ways to achieve it (drug dealer – 1. Criminal subculture p
more likely WC) organised crime where c
3. Ritualism gives up on goals but internalised Albert Cohen (1955) – Status Frustration socialise youths into app
legitimate means so follow rules (low-level Focuses on WC boys in MC dominated education system utilitarian crime + oppor
employee) Culturally deprived so lacks skills to succeed legitimately which climbing criminal ladder
4. Retreatism reject goals + legitimate means puts them at bottom of status hierarchy
(drug addicts) Reject mainstream values + turn to delinquent subculture 2. Conflict subculture ga
5. Rebellion reject goals + means but replace by youth based on claim
them with alternative (political activist Alternative status hierarchy from other gangs in ‘turf
advocating against capitalism) Subcultures that value malice/hostility to outsiders high population neighbo
Invert mainstream values creating illegitimate opportunity structure social disorganisation pr
Evaluation to get status through peers via crime criminal network)
• Most crime is utilitarian (personal gain) which
supports idea of reaching American dream Evaluation 3. Retreatists subculture
illegitimately • Explains non-utilitarian crime like vandalism cannot access a legitima
• Lower class crime rates higher as less • Idea of deviant subcultures consciously + purposefully inverting illegitimate opportunity
opportunity for wealth (BUT MC + WHITE values criticised for overestimating active thought (postmodernists out as group (abuse illeg
COLLAR CRIME UNDERREPORTED SO STATS like Lyng argue more influenced by boredom)
TAKEN AT FACE VALUE) • Says his phenomenon relates to WC boys but makes few links to Evaluation
• Doesn’t explain non-utilitarian crime class/gender + doesn’t explain why they particularly struggle to • Explains why there is diff
• Only explains individual adaptations to strain achieve in school (unlike Willis) WC deviance
• If reason for deviance is low status, then in 1950’s America could • South (2020) argues lines
not group deviance
• Doesn’t consider source of social goals + whose expect girls to form deviant subcultures subcultures are too distin
interests society is socialised into (capitalist trade is mix of disorganis
ideology serving interests of bourgeoise through professional crime
• Matza (1964) people aren
working hard + purchasing consumer goods of
their own labour) subculture + drift in/out d
• Ignores crimes of wealthy
structures making/enforc
, Criminogenic capitalism Selective law enforcement
Crime is inevitable because Application of law is unequal even though all classes
capitalism causes it as its based committing crime
WC is criminalised whilst crimes of powerful ignored (so can't Marxist
on exploiting WC
Encourages to pursue self-interest take official stats at face value) explanatio
Tax avoidance by rich costs economy £70bn/year + goes
rather than public duty n of crime
(individualism not collectivist) unpunished
Encourages to be materialistic Ensures FCC by making crime WC issue so workers turn &
consumers + aspire to unrealistic/
against criminals not capitalism deviance
unattainable lifestyle
Generates inequality + poverty Unequal access to the law (money to hire good lawyer
can be difference between being found not guilty/ guilty
(correlated with higher crime + influence length of sentence + type of prison
rates) Poorer criminals tend to receive harsher punishments than
rich criminals Ideological functions
Rothkopf – at the top, the President Donald Trump stands accused of 87 crimes between
‘Superclass’ (people who run global Law + crime perform ideological function
2017 + 2022 Pearce (1976) – laws benefits capitalism b
corporations) + at the bottom the FIFA fraud went unpunished (people accepting bribes for world
underclass (in developed world)/ workers fit for work + giving it ‘caring face’
cup votes )
slum dwellers like street children + class consciousness (health + safety laws)
Aren't rigorously enforced (2007 corporate
refugees (in developing world) Gordon - police focus on policing WC areas + justice system
Bauman – super wealthy effectively focuses on prosecuting WC criminals 1 prosecution despite many employers bein
segregate themselves via exclusive system ignores crimes of elite + MC although just as likely to deaths) compared to loitering laws being di
gated communities (the Hamptons, commit crime enforced against homeless)
NYC) + private jets Disproportionate prosecution of WC serves to maintain ruling-
This visible evidence of class power + reinforce their ideology
Police, court + media focus on WC street crime means Law creation
inequalities give people at
bottom sense of injustice + attention diverted from immorality + greed of elite See laws as serving interests of bour
Evaluation Chambliss (1975) – laws to protect p
frustration (not sharing of • Explains relationship between crime + capitalist society
wealth being flaunted to them are cornerstone are cornerstone of cap
• Ignores relationship between crime + other inequalities like
especially with social media) (100k homeless in UK + 300k houses e
gender/ethnicity
Marxists think egalitarian of property owners to keep properties
• Deterministic as over-predicts WC crime + ignores that not everyone
societies based on values of co- rights of needy to shelter)
in poverty turns to it Britain needed labour on colonies’ plan
operation + mutual assistance • Left realists ignores intra-class crime where both offender + victim
have lower crime rates (Parry’s are WC economy wasn’t based on money rewa
visit to Island of Anuta) • May be true that economic costs of corporate crime are greater than reluctant to work BUT British implemen
street crime but direct emotional impact of street crimes are greater them, so people had to work to pay
Capitalism is competitive so (victim of robbery may feel it more than fraud as may not even
crime not just by WC notice) Snider (1993) – state is reluctant to pas
Need to stay in business • Communist countries are not crime free so capitalism isn’t issue regulate activities of businesses + threat
encourages white collar + (North Korea has bad human rights record) profitability
corporate crime • Criminal justice has punished corporate crimes on some occasions Trump 2025 pulled out of Paris agreem
Gordon (1976) – crime is (2015 Volkswagen Emissions Scandal - executive sentenced to 7 fossil fuel drilling
rational response to dog-eat-dog years in prison)
capitalist system (why it happens Would argue this is tokenism to maintain legitimacy but most get
in all classes) away with it
Crime is inevitable part of healthy society because: Prostitution is safety valve that helps r
1. Everyone socialised differently + some not sexual frustrations without threatening
effectively (poor socialisation means they accept nuclear family
deviant norms + values instead of those in mainstream (Feminists criticise because ignores wom
society) frustrations) Erikson (1966)
2. Modern society is complex especially cities +
Argues if deviance has positive functio
many cultures/ lifestyles in concentrated area
must be organised to promote it
which causes formation of subcultures that may
have norms + values that oppose mainstream Student rag weeks to allow behaviour
society (African cultures its acceptable to eat with punished which may give leeway to co
hands but mainstream European society may see this growing up
as deviant) Cohen
Deviance acts as warning that an instit
Boundary maintenance functioning effectively
Value consensus reinforced through policing of the Policy-makers know to change to sch
margins (those seen as deviant) using formal high
(imprisonment) + informal (social condemnation)
sanctions to punish those who refuse to conform
Shared disapproval of crime strengthens social solidarity Polsky
(feeling of unit/ joint purpose) + public’s commitment to Pornography safely channels away des
norms & values Functionalist that would threaten family (adultery)
Argues even in ‘society of saints’ there would be explanations of
deviance as behaviour considered as this varies
between societies (some US states you can be fined for
crime &
grass being too long) deviance Evaluation
• Explains how crime can be integral to society’s run
Social change • Often after major crimes communities unite to con
Crime & deviance acts as catalyst to challenge which reinforces social solidarity (Public Vigils and
current laws/norms to encourage necessary changes 2024 Southport stabbings)
in society, so it doesn’t stagnate (legalising same- • Doesn’t establish correct amount of crime
sex marriage UK 2013) • Deterministic
Although functionalists promote incremental organic • Effects of functions on victims of crime ignored (m
change over radical change valve ignores illegally trafficked women for sex wo
• Crime doesn’t always promote solidarity (women f
Says too much/little deviance was bad for society as during Yorkshire ripper attacks)
it affects social order (less deviance in pre-industrial • Durkheim talks about crime in general terms (theo
society due to mechanical solidarity of society as
‘crime’ is necessary + even functional but fails to
nature of economy + society meant social bonds
between different types of crime when some may
were tight)
Increased isolation + privatised nature of modern that will always be dysfunctional)
industrialised societies increased likelihood of deviance • Theory is teleological (operates reverse logic by tu
(even more now than time of his writing) into cause as in reality cause of crime is dysfunctio
vice versa)
Also argued increased deviance when societies
undergo rapid change (industrialisation 18th century)
due to anomie (state of normlessness + absence of social
cohesion)
, Merton (1938) – Strain theory Functionalist Cloward + Ohlin (1960)
People turn to deviance when can't achieve
socially accepted goals by legitimate means explanations of subculture
Combines structural factors (unequal crime & Combine Merton + Cohen to
opportunities) + cultural factors (strong different criminal subculture
deviance contemporary America
emphasis on success through consumer culture/
Argue there is a legitimat
social media)
American culture (individualistic) values structure (echoing Merton
financial success based on meritocracy – means)
Also identify alternative i
American Dream
Some in society denied opportunities to achieve opportunity structure thr
so pushed to deviance (PoC face discrimination membership
Could be strain in illegitim
in hiring/promotion)
structures if no existing c
Deviant adaptations to strain: subcultures locally (expla
1. Conformity accepts culturally approved goals who have blocked legitim
+ strives to achieve them through legitimate structures turn to crime)
means (MC worker with degree)
2. Innovation accepts goals but uses Deviant subcultures
illegitimate ways to achieve it (drug dealer – 1. Criminal subculture p
more likely WC) organised crime where c
3. Ritualism gives up on goals but internalised Albert Cohen (1955) – Status Frustration socialise youths into app
legitimate means so follow rules (low-level Focuses on WC boys in MC dominated education system utilitarian crime + oppor
employee) Culturally deprived so lacks skills to succeed legitimately which climbing criminal ladder
4. Retreatism reject goals + legitimate means puts them at bottom of status hierarchy
(drug addicts) Reject mainstream values + turn to delinquent subculture 2. Conflict subculture ga
5. Rebellion reject goals + means but replace by youth based on claim
them with alternative (political activist Alternative status hierarchy from other gangs in ‘turf
advocating against capitalism) Subcultures that value malice/hostility to outsiders high population neighbo
Invert mainstream values creating illegitimate opportunity structure social disorganisation pr
Evaluation to get status through peers via crime criminal network)
• Most crime is utilitarian (personal gain) which
supports idea of reaching American dream Evaluation 3. Retreatists subculture
illegitimately • Explains non-utilitarian crime like vandalism cannot access a legitima
• Lower class crime rates higher as less • Idea of deviant subcultures consciously + purposefully inverting illegitimate opportunity
opportunity for wealth (BUT MC + WHITE values criticised for overestimating active thought (postmodernists out as group (abuse illeg
COLLAR CRIME UNDERREPORTED SO STATS like Lyng argue more influenced by boredom)
TAKEN AT FACE VALUE) • Says his phenomenon relates to WC boys but makes few links to Evaluation
• Doesn’t explain non-utilitarian crime class/gender + doesn’t explain why they particularly struggle to • Explains why there is diff
• Only explains individual adaptations to strain achieve in school (unlike Willis) WC deviance
• If reason for deviance is low status, then in 1950’s America could • South (2020) argues lines
not group deviance
• Doesn’t consider source of social goals + whose expect girls to form deviant subcultures subcultures are too distin
interests society is socialised into (capitalist trade is mix of disorganis
ideology serving interests of bourgeoise through professional crime
• Matza (1964) people aren
working hard + purchasing consumer goods of
their own labour) subculture + drift in/out d
• Ignores crimes of wealthy
structures making/enforc
, Criminogenic capitalism Selective law enforcement
Crime is inevitable because Application of law is unequal even though all classes
capitalism causes it as its based committing crime
WC is criminalised whilst crimes of powerful ignored (so can't Marxist
on exploiting WC
Encourages to pursue self-interest take official stats at face value) explanatio
Tax avoidance by rich costs economy £70bn/year + goes
rather than public duty n of crime
(individualism not collectivist) unpunished
Encourages to be materialistic Ensures FCC by making crime WC issue so workers turn &
consumers + aspire to unrealistic/
against criminals not capitalism deviance
unattainable lifestyle
Generates inequality + poverty Unequal access to the law (money to hire good lawyer
can be difference between being found not guilty/ guilty
(correlated with higher crime + influence length of sentence + type of prison
rates) Poorer criminals tend to receive harsher punishments than
rich criminals Ideological functions
Rothkopf – at the top, the President Donald Trump stands accused of 87 crimes between
‘Superclass’ (people who run global Law + crime perform ideological function
2017 + 2022 Pearce (1976) – laws benefits capitalism b
corporations) + at the bottom the FIFA fraud went unpunished (people accepting bribes for world
underclass (in developed world)/ workers fit for work + giving it ‘caring face’
cup votes )
slum dwellers like street children + class consciousness (health + safety laws)
Aren't rigorously enforced (2007 corporate
refugees (in developing world) Gordon - police focus on policing WC areas + justice system
Bauman – super wealthy effectively focuses on prosecuting WC criminals 1 prosecution despite many employers bein
segregate themselves via exclusive system ignores crimes of elite + MC although just as likely to deaths) compared to loitering laws being di
gated communities (the Hamptons, commit crime enforced against homeless)
NYC) + private jets Disproportionate prosecution of WC serves to maintain ruling-
This visible evidence of class power + reinforce their ideology
Police, court + media focus on WC street crime means Law creation
inequalities give people at
bottom sense of injustice + attention diverted from immorality + greed of elite See laws as serving interests of bour
Evaluation Chambliss (1975) – laws to protect p
frustration (not sharing of • Explains relationship between crime + capitalist society
wealth being flaunted to them are cornerstone are cornerstone of cap
• Ignores relationship between crime + other inequalities like
especially with social media) (100k homeless in UK + 300k houses e
gender/ethnicity
Marxists think egalitarian of property owners to keep properties
• Deterministic as over-predicts WC crime + ignores that not everyone
societies based on values of co- rights of needy to shelter)
in poverty turns to it Britain needed labour on colonies’ plan
operation + mutual assistance • Left realists ignores intra-class crime where both offender + victim
have lower crime rates (Parry’s are WC economy wasn’t based on money rewa
visit to Island of Anuta) • May be true that economic costs of corporate crime are greater than reluctant to work BUT British implemen
street crime but direct emotional impact of street crimes are greater them, so people had to work to pay
Capitalism is competitive so (victim of robbery may feel it more than fraud as may not even
crime not just by WC notice) Snider (1993) – state is reluctant to pas
Need to stay in business • Communist countries are not crime free so capitalism isn’t issue regulate activities of businesses + threat
encourages white collar + (North Korea has bad human rights record) profitability
corporate crime • Criminal justice has punished corporate crimes on some occasions Trump 2025 pulled out of Paris agreem
Gordon (1976) – crime is (2015 Volkswagen Emissions Scandal - executive sentenced to 7 fossil fuel drilling
rational response to dog-eat-dog years in prison)
capitalist system (why it happens Would argue this is tokenism to maintain legitimacy but most get
in all classes) away with it
