These materials are the intellectual property of Lotus Mohammad and are for personal use only. Any reproduction,
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
Detailed 16 marker plans for Schizophrenia (Paper 3)
Discuss the reliability and validity of the diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia
(16)
AO1
S- In the context of schizophrenia, reliability refers to the idea that diagnoses must be
repeatable across clinicians
E- Reigner concluded that for schizophrenia diagnosis there is a Kappa r score of 0.46, which,
om
as it is well below the 0.8 score needed for agreeability, indicates sub-par reliability. Issues with
reliability in diagnosis come about from clinicians using different diagnostic tools, such as the
DSM and ICD
l.c
AO1
S- Additionally, validity in this context refers to a diagnosis being accurate and sound, and an
ai
issue of validity comes about due to gender bias or culture bias
E- For example, some unconscious bias in clinicians causes women’s symptoms to be seen as
hysteria rather than a legitimate diagnosis. This is seen as both genders are equally at risk of
gm
schizophrenia, but women are largely undiagnosed
AO1
S- Moreover, comorbidities refers to two or more mental health conditions occurring at once,
@
including schizophrenia. This leads to symptom overlap, especially with major depressive
disorder which have similar symptoms as schizophrenia’s negative symptoms of avolition
E- This may be due to a common aetiology, and is especially alarming as Buckley 2009 found
72
that schizophrenic patients see comorbidities with depression at 50%, and with PTSD at about
29%.
ct
AO3
P- One weakness of Buckley 2009’s findings regarding comorbidities is poor explanatory power.
so
E- For instance, while findings show alarming, significant comorbidities of schizophrenia, it fails
to explain why these comorbidities come about
tu
E- This lack of clarity in the findings is a weakness as it presents a problem with no solution,
which highly limits the real life applications which could be produced, perhaps in the form of
solutions or further research, in order to solve this issue.
lo
L- Therefore, the poor explanatory power and limited nature of this study limits the usefulness of
its findings as support for the issue of comorbidities, as it posits no solution to this issue in
diagnosis accuracy.
AO3
P- One strength showing the issues of validity in diagnosis is supporting evidence
,
These materials are the intellectual property of Lotus Mohammad and are for personal use only. Any reproduction,
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
E- For example, Rosenhan 1973 tested the validity of diagnosis by having 8 confederates give
false schizophrenia symptoms and be diagnosed by clinicians, and all but one confederate were
admitted into a mental hospital with a schizophrenia diagnosis
E- This is a strength as it clearly shows that the method or criteria of diagnosis is not specific or
detailed enough to identify fake from real cases of schizophrenia, for 7 false-positive diagnoses
were made, showing a lack of accuracy and validity in diagnostic measures of schizophrenia
C- However, this study is limited due to its poor adherence to psychology’s ethical guidelines
E- For example, the procedure of this study involved heavy deception of the participants, which
om
were psychiatric clinicians, and the awareness that they had misdiagnosed confederates may
risk psychological harm in the forms of guilt, embarrassment, insecurity, and distress.
E- This is a weakness because breaking these ethical guidelines makes the reliability of this
study quite poor, as the procedure of this study cannot be realistically replicated to find similar
l.c
results as other psychologists cannot risk psychological harm to their participants
L- Therefore, while this study provides evidence for the issues present in the validity of
ai
schizophrenia diagnoses, its reliability is limited due to its poor ethical validity, so overall, the
usefulness of validity as an issue regarding schizophrenia diagnosis is limited to a certain extent
AO3
gm
P- Lastly, one strength of the effects of culture bias on validity of diagnosis is supporting
evidence
E- For example. Schwartz 2019 found that African Americans are 2.4 times more likely to be
@
diagnosed with schizophrenia than other ethnic groups
E- This is a strength as it points to flaws within the diagnostic procedure used by clinicians,
which may be based on a Western bound biomedical model, meaning there may be
72
overdiagnosed in groups such as African Americans due to a lack of cultural sensitivity and a
lack of understanding of cultural bound symptoms
ct
L- Therefore, this shows that there is a lack of accuracy in the diagnostic measures of
schizophrenia used by clinicians, strengthening the argument for validity as an issue in
diagnosis in psychology.
so
Discuss the genetic explanation of schizophrenia (16)
tu
AO1
P- The genetic explanation posits that schizophrenia is inherited through families genetically.
E- For example, if both parents are schizophrenic patients, their child will have a higher
lo
likelihood of also having schizophrenia
E- This is because schizophrenia is polygenic, and its candidate genes, including dysbindin and
neuregulin 1 (Salleh 2004), are likely to be passed down to future generations, where these
genes regulate and product key mood-related neurotransmitters such as serotonin, glutamate,
and dopamine, which are key in causing symptoms related to schizophrenia
L- Therefore, there are key candidate genes involved in the heritability of schizophrenia
AO1
,
These materials are the intellectual property of Lotus Mohammad and are for personal use only. Any reproduction,
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
P- One study investigating the heritability of schizophrenia is McCarroll 2016
E- This study used genome analysis found from the work of the genome project of 2003 as well
as post-mortems of brains of schizophrenic patients to find a genetic link for schizophrenia
E- McCarroll found that there was one candidate gene continually found to produce
schizophrenia, which was the C4 gene. This gene was involved in the synaptic pruning of
neurons during development
L- Thus, it was established that there was a genetic cause to developing schizophrenia
om
AO3
P- One strength of McCarroll 2016 as evidence of a genetic cause to schizophrenia is
methodological strengths regarding scientific nature
E- For example, McCarroll used genome analyses and post-mortems to identify genetic links
l.c
into schizophrenia, which are clinical and scientific
E- These methods are objective and not affected by bias or individual differences, meaning they
ai
have high validity because no confounding variables are affecting the results found
L- Thus, there is high usefulness of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia into the causes of
schizophrenia
gm
AO3
P- Moreover, another strength of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia is supporting
evidence.
@
E- For example, Gottesman 1991 found a 48% concordance rate in monozygotic (identical)
twins while there was a 17% concordance rate in dizygotic (fraternal) twins
E- Since monozygotic twins share 100% of their DNA, there must be at least some genetic basis
72
of schizophrenia as concordance increases with increasing shared DNA. This provides clinical,
empirical evidence of a genetic basis, which improves the validity of the genetic explanation
ct
C- However, studies into the heritability of schizophrenia are limited because they fail to
establish the genetic explanation as a sole explanation of schizophrenia
E- For example, Gottesman failed to find a 100% concordance rate, and from his findings, there
so
is a less than 50% concordance rate for genes as a cause of schizophrenia
E- This is a weakness because it means that genetic factors alone cannot fully explain the onset
tu
of schizophrenia. Other factors, such as environmental influences, may also play a significant
role in the development of the disorder, suggesting that the genetic explanation should be
considered alongside other contributing factors.
lo
L- In conclusion, while genetic factors do contribute to the likelihood of developing
schizophrenia, the incomplete concordance rates highlight the complexity of the disorder,
meaning that the overall usefulness of this explanation is limited to a certain extent
AO3
P- Lastly, one weakness of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia is the presence of a
different theory.
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
Detailed 16 marker plans for Schizophrenia (Paper 3)
Discuss the reliability and validity of the diagnosis and classification of schizophrenia
(16)
AO1
S- In the context of schizophrenia, reliability refers to the idea that diagnoses must be
repeatable across clinicians
E- Reigner concluded that for schizophrenia diagnosis there is a Kappa r score of 0.46, which,
om
as it is well below the 0.8 score needed for agreeability, indicates sub-par reliability. Issues with
reliability in diagnosis come about from clinicians using different diagnostic tools, such as the
DSM and ICD
l.c
AO1
S- Additionally, validity in this context refers to a diagnosis being accurate and sound, and an
ai
issue of validity comes about due to gender bias or culture bias
E- For example, some unconscious bias in clinicians causes women’s symptoms to be seen as
hysteria rather than a legitimate diagnosis. This is seen as both genders are equally at risk of
gm
schizophrenia, but women are largely undiagnosed
AO1
S- Moreover, comorbidities refers to two or more mental health conditions occurring at once,
@
including schizophrenia. This leads to symptom overlap, especially with major depressive
disorder which have similar symptoms as schizophrenia’s negative symptoms of avolition
E- This may be due to a common aetiology, and is especially alarming as Buckley 2009 found
72
that schizophrenic patients see comorbidities with depression at 50%, and with PTSD at about
29%.
ct
AO3
P- One weakness of Buckley 2009’s findings regarding comorbidities is poor explanatory power.
so
E- For instance, while findings show alarming, significant comorbidities of schizophrenia, it fails
to explain why these comorbidities come about
tu
E- This lack of clarity in the findings is a weakness as it presents a problem with no solution,
which highly limits the real life applications which could be produced, perhaps in the form of
solutions or further research, in order to solve this issue.
lo
L- Therefore, the poor explanatory power and limited nature of this study limits the usefulness of
its findings as support for the issue of comorbidities, as it posits no solution to this issue in
diagnosis accuracy.
AO3
P- One strength showing the issues of validity in diagnosis is supporting evidence
,
These materials are the intellectual property of Lotus Mohammad and are for personal use only. Any reproduction,
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
E- For example, Rosenhan 1973 tested the validity of diagnosis by having 8 confederates give
false schizophrenia symptoms and be diagnosed by clinicians, and all but one confederate were
admitted into a mental hospital with a schizophrenia diagnosis
E- This is a strength as it clearly shows that the method or criteria of diagnosis is not specific or
detailed enough to identify fake from real cases of schizophrenia, for 7 false-positive diagnoses
were made, showing a lack of accuracy and validity in diagnostic measures of schizophrenia
C- However, this study is limited due to its poor adherence to psychology’s ethical guidelines
E- For example, the procedure of this study involved heavy deception of the participants, which
om
were psychiatric clinicians, and the awareness that they had misdiagnosed confederates may
risk psychological harm in the forms of guilt, embarrassment, insecurity, and distress.
E- This is a weakness because breaking these ethical guidelines makes the reliability of this
study quite poor, as the procedure of this study cannot be realistically replicated to find similar
l.c
results as other psychologists cannot risk psychological harm to their participants
L- Therefore, while this study provides evidence for the issues present in the validity of
ai
schizophrenia diagnoses, its reliability is limited due to its poor ethical validity, so overall, the
usefulness of validity as an issue regarding schizophrenia diagnosis is limited to a certain extent
AO3
gm
P- Lastly, one strength of the effects of culture bias on validity of diagnosis is supporting
evidence
E- For example. Schwartz 2019 found that African Americans are 2.4 times more likely to be
@
diagnosed with schizophrenia than other ethnic groups
E- This is a strength as it points to flaws within the diagnostic procedure used by clinicians,
which may be based on a Western bound biomedical model, meaning there may be
72
overdiagnosed in groups such as African Americans due to a lack of cultural sensitivity and a
lack of understanding of cultural bound symptoms
ct
L- Therefore, this shows that there is a lack of accuracy in the diagnostic measures of
schizophrenia used by clinicians, strengthening the argument for validity as an issue in
diagnosis in psychology.
so
Discuss the genetic explanation of schizophrenia (16)
tu
AO1
P- The genetic explanation posits that schizophrenia is inherited through families genetically.
E- For example, if both parents are schizophrenic patients, their child will have a higher
lo
likelihood of also having schizophrenia
E- This is because schizophrenia is polygenic, and its candidate genes, including dysbindin and
neuregulin 1 (Salleh 2004), are likely to be passed down to future generations, where these
genes regulate and product key mood-related neurotransmitters such as serotonin, glutamate,
and dopamine, which are key in causing symptoms related to schizophrenia
L- Therefore, there are key candidate genes involved in the heritability of schizophrenia
AO1
,
These materials are the intellectual property of Lotus Mohammad and are for personal use only. Any reproduction,
distribution, or sharing without explicit written permission is strictly prohibited.
P- One study investigating the heritability of schizophrenia is McCarroll 2016
E- This study used genome analysis found from the work of the genome project of 2003 as well
as post-mortems of brains of schizophrenic patients to find a genetic link for schizophrenia
E- McCarroll found that there was one candidate gene continually found to produce
schizophrenia, which was the C4 gene. This gene was involved in the synaptic pruning of
neurons during development
L- Thus, it was established that there was a genetic cause to developing schizophrenia
om
AO3
P- One strength of McCarroll 2016 as evidence of a genetic cause to schizophrenia is
methodological strengths regarding scientific nature
E- For example, McCarroll used genome analyses and post-mortems to identify genetic links
l.c
into schizophrenia, which are clinical and scientific
E- These methods are objective and not affected by bias or individual differences, meaning they
ai
have high validity because no confounding variables are affecting the results found
L- Thus, there is high usefulness of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia into the causes of
schizophrenia
gm
AO3
P- Moreover, another strength of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia is supporting
evidence.
@
E- For example, Gottesman 1991 found a 48% concordance rate in monozygotic (identical)
twins while there was a 17% concordance rate in dizygotic (fraternal) twins
E- Since monozygotic twins share 100% of their DNA, there must be at least some genetic basis
72
of schizophrenia as concordance increases with increasing shared DNA. This provides clinical,
empirical evidence of a genetic basis, which improves the validity of the genetic explanation
ct
C- However, studies into the heritability of schizophrenia are limited because they fail to
establish the genetic explanation as a sole explanation of schizophrenia
E- For example, Gottesman failed to find a 100% concordance rate, and from his findings, there
so
is a less than 50% concordance rate for genes as a cause of schizophrenia
E- This is a weakness because it means that genetic factors alone cannot fully explain the onset
tu
of schizophrenia. Other factors, such as environmental influences, may also play a significant
role in the development of the disorder, suggesting that the genetic explanation should be
considered alongside other contributing factors.
lo
L- In conclusion, while genetic factors do contribute to the likelihood of developing
schizophrenia, the incomplete concordance rates highlight the complexity of the disorder,
meaning that the overall usefulness of this explanation is limited to a certain extent
AO3
P- Lastly, one weakness of the genetic explanation of schizophrenia is the presence of a
different theory.
