Content Page
Research & Sampling Methods
Experimental Design…………………………………………………….………….…….…....…….2
Type of Sampling……………………………………………………………..……….…….…..……3
Research Question…………………………………………….………………………....…….……4
Type of Variables……………………………….…………………………………………….....……5
Location of Research…………………………………………………………….…………….….…6
Methodologies
Quasi Experiments (Difference Studies and Natural Experiments)………….………...……….8
Self Report………………………………………………………….………………..…………...…11
Participant and Non-Participant Observations……………………………….……………….…12
Type of Validity.…………………………………………………………………….…………..……13
Internal and External Reliability……………………………………………………………..….…15
Type of Data Measurement…………………………………………………………………..……15
Statistics
N.O.I.R Data……………………………………………………………………………..……..……16
Correlation…………………………………….……………………………………………......……17
Descriptive Statistics…………………………………………………………………………..……20
Measures of Central Tendency…………………………………………………….………………21
Statistical Tests and Probability Values…………….………………………………….…………22
Ethics…………………………………………………………………………………………………26
DRAINS Evaluation…………………………………….…………………………………...………27
Contemporary Debates
The Mother As a Primary Caregiver………………………………………………………………29
The Ethics of Neuroscience………………………………………...………………………...……31
Using Conditioning Techniques to Control the Behaviour of Children…………………………35
Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony……………………..……...…………………………………38
Relevance of Positive Psychology…………………………………………………...……………41
Glossary…………………..………………………………………………………………….………45
,Research & Sampling Methods
Experimental Design - a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as
the participant variables in an experiment
Repeated Measures - where the same group of participants take part in both the control
and experimental group (observing changes in behaviour over time or longitudinal period)
● Demand characteristics (please you effect or screw you effect)
● Order effects (nervous, fatigue or learning effects) and boredom effects
Counterbalancing can be used to randomise and is tested first or second in equal amounts.
Independent Groups - when two or more group of participants participate in different
experimental conditions (useful when participants may have varying levels of skill)
● Participant variables (specific characteristics that allow them to perform better)
● Need more participants
Randomly allocated participants can be used to combat these disadvantages.
Matched pairs design - pairs of participants are matched on key characteristics relevant to
the study
● Very time consuming and difficult to match participants on key variables
● Not possible to control participant variables (can only match on one variable but may
exclude other variables that might impact the experiment)
Restrict the number of variables or consider a pilot study to consider key variables when
matching participants
Order Effects:
Practise effect - an improvement to a task due to repetition
Fatigue effect - an decrease in performance due to repetition
Please you effect - performing better than usual due to perceived experimental aims
Screw you effect - performing worse than usual to mess up experimental results
,Types of Sampling
Event sampling - an observational sampling technique where the research tallies up scores
in a frequency table
● Records all events within the observation period
● Simple as they only need a start and stop time
● Lumps all behaviour together (can’t tell the progression of these events)
● Overwhelming to record behaviours constantly
Time sampling - an observational sampling technique where behaviours at recorded at a
specific time interval
● Shows progression of behaviour throughout the event
● Not easily overwhelmed
● Limited records of behaviour (left out behaviours outside time intervals)
● More complex to organise (especially with multiple participants)
Quota sampling - non-random sampling technique by identifying the subgroups in your
target population and chooses individuals with specific traits or qualities. It also maintains the
correct proportions to represent the population accurately.
● Cheaper as less respondents are required
● Representative of the population
● Harder to eliminate bias in the selection process
● Not generalizable to the wider population
● Cannot calculate sampling errors
The main difference between stratified and quota sampling is that stratification is a random
technique whereas quota sampling is not.
, Research Question
Aim of the Research - describes the main goal or the overarching purpose of your research
project
Research Hypothesis - a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an
expected result
Alternative (or experimental) Hypothesis - the hypothesis that we are trying to prove and
which is accepted if we have sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis - A hypothesis that states there is no significant difference between
variables. It’s an assumption of what is expected naturally or no change.
Directional Hypothesis - A hypothesis that specifies the prediction of a relationship
between variables
Ex. Caffeine is linked to an increase in activity
Non-directional Hypothesis - A hypothesis that doesn’t specify the type or direction of the
relationship that is expected to occur.
Ex. Caffeine causes a change in activity level (with no specification whether where that will
be an increase or a decrease)
Research & Sampling Methods
Experimental Design…………………………………………………….………….…….…....…….2
Type of Sampling……………………………………………………………..……….…….…..……3
Research Question…………………………………………….………………………....…….……4
Type of Variables……………………………….…………………………………………….....……5
Location of Research…………………………………………………………….…………….….…6
Methodologies
Quasi Experiments (Difference Studies and Natural Experiments)………….………...……….8
Self Report………………………………………………………….………………..…………...…11
Participant and Non-Participant Observations……………………………….……………….…12
Type of Validity.…………………………………………………………………….…………..……13
Internal and External Reliability……………………………………………………………..….…15
Type of Data Measurement…………………………………………………………………..……15
Statistics
N.O.I.R Data……………………………………………………………………………..……..……16
Correlation…………………………………….……………………………………………......……17
Descriptive Statistics…………………………………………………………………………..……20
Measures of Central Tendency…………………………………………………….………………21
Statistical Tests and Probability Values…………….………………………………….…………22
Ethics…………………………………………………………………………………………………26
DRAINS Evaluation…………………………………….…………………………………...………27
Contemporary Debates
The Mother As a Primary Caregiver………………………………………………………………29
The Ethics of Neuroscience………………………………………...………………………...……31
Using Conditioning Techniques to Control the Behaviour of Children…………………………35
Reliability of Eyewitness Testimony……………………..……...…………………………………38
Relevance of Positive Psychology…………………………………………………...……………41
Glossary…………………..………………………………………………………………….………45
,Research & Sampling Methods
Experimental Design - a set of procedures used to control the influence of factors such as
the participant variables in an experiment
Repeated Measures - where the same group of participants take part in both the control
and experimental group (observing changes in behaviour over time or longitudinal period)
● Demand characteristics (please you effect or screw you effect)
● Order effects (nervous, fatigue or learning effects) and boredom effects
Counterbalancing can be used to randomise and is tested first or second in equal amounts.
Independent Groups - when two or more group of participants participate in different
experimental conditions (useful when participants may have varying levels of skill)
● Participant variables (specific characteristics that allow them to perform better)
● Need more participants
Randomly allocated participants can be used to combat these disadvantages.
Matched pairs design - pairs of participants are matched on key characteristics relevant to
the study
● Very time consuming and difficult to match participants on key variables
● Not possible to control participant variables (can only match on one variable but may
exclude other variables that might impact the experiment)
Restrict the number of variables or consider a pilot study to consider key variables when
matching participants
Order Effects:
Practise effect - an improvement to a task due to repetition
Fatigue effect - an decrease in performance due to repetition
Please you effect - performing better than usual due to perceived experimental aims
Screw you effect - performing worse than usual to mess up experimental results
,Types of Sampling
Event sampling - an observational sampling technique where the research tallies up scores
in a frequency table
● Records all events within the observation period
● Simple as they only need a start and stop time
● Lumps all behaviour together (can’t tell the progression of these events)
● Overwhelming to record behaviours constantly
Time sampling - an observational sampling technique where behaviours at recorded at a
specific time interval
● Shows progression of behaviour throughout the event
● Not easily overwhelmed
● Limited records of behaviour (left out behaviours outside time intervals)
● More complex to organise (especially with multiple participants)
Quota sampling - non-random sampling technique by identifying the subgroups in your
target population and chooses individuals with specific traits or qualities. It also maintains the
correct proportions to represent the population accurately.
● Cheaper as less respondents are required
● Representative of the population
● Harder to eliminate bias in the selection process
● Not generalizable to the wider population
● Cannot calculate sampling errors
The main difference between stratified and quota sampling is that stratification is a random
technique whereas quota sampling is not.
, Research Question
Aim of the Research - describes the main goal or the overarching purpose of your research
project
Research Hypothesis - a statement that introduces a research question and proposes an
expected result
Alternative (or experimental) Hypothesis - the hypothesis that we are trying to prove and
which is accepted if we have sufficient evidence to reject the null hypothesis.
Null Hypothesis - A hypothesis that states there is no significant difference between
variables. It’s an assumption of what is expected naturally or no change.
Directional Hypothesis - A hypothesis that specifies the prediction of a relationship
between variables
Ex. Caffeine is linked to an increase in activity
Non-directional Hypothesis - A hypothesis that doesn’t specify the type or direction of the
relationship that is expected to occur.
Ex. Caffeine causes a change in activity level (with no specification whether where that will
be an increase or a decrease)
