Physical Chemistry
Year 1 Year 2
Atomic structure Thermodynamics
Amount of substance Rate equations
Bonding Kp
Energetics Electrochemistry
Kinetics pH
Equilibria
Redox
, Atomic
structure
• The history of the atom
• Fundamental particles
• Mass number, atomic number,
isotopes
• Electron arrangement
• Mass spectroscopy (theory)
• Mass spectroscopy
(calculations)
• Ionisation energy
, Democritus John Dalton proposed 5 postulates of the atom:
19th century scientists (such as Mic
discovered charged glass tubes
c.430 BCE • Matter is made of indivisible, indestructible
atoms
J.J. Thomson, vacuum would luminesce. This glo
a straight line, and then named ca
• All atoms of an element are identical 1904 Goldstein in 1876.
• Different elements have different weights
Cathode rays were proven to be d
and chemical properties
fields by Jean Perrin in 1895, a
• Compounds are made when atoms combine
replicated his experiment to prove
in whole number ratios
way negatively charged particles w
• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (see
Thomson’s second experiment wou
Lavoisier’s experiments proving the law of
Hertz’s failed experiments, trying t
conservation of mass)
cathode rays. By creating a bet
predecessors, he could successfu
This recognised how elements can differ, and
rays were negatively charged afte
applied the scientific method to atoms,
field to the rays.
solidifying Democritus’s philosophy in science.
Democritus, a Greek philosopher,
However, it still falls short to retroactive His third experiment combined the previous two, In 1904, Thomson presented the p
theorised that atoms (small
knowledge, such as isotopes and subatomic allowing him to control the strengths of the where electrons are the only cons
indivisible parts) make up all
particles. It also failed to explain the formation electrical and magnetic fields to measure the enclosed in a cloud of positive
objects. Much like a rock split in half
of isomers and their unique qualities. Most length of deflection and energy carried. From these retroactively disproven by curren
holds the same properties, any given
notably, he believed that compounds with two measurements, he could calculate the mass to nucleus.
object would keep their properties if
elements in them (such as water) would bond 1 charge ratio, which ended up being over one
divided to their smallest parts. He
to 1 (creating HO instead of H2O). This was thousand times (1000x) smaller than a hydrogen
also theorised that different
because chemists worked with masses as atom. Either the constituents of the cathode rays
materials were composed of
ratios, not considering the number of atoms. were very light (with an atom-like charge) or had
different atoms, with size, mass and
This would later be rectified after Avogadro’s an enormous charge (with an atom-like mass).
shape varying. Other properties
law (equal volumes of gas have equal numbers Despite sources explaining the former is true, the
were determined by connection
of molecules) was applied to stoichiometry. means to which he reached the conclusion is very
between atoms (e.g., taste, colour).
While an impressive observation, much disorganised. One source outright claims
Democritus did not apply the Thomson just “decided” upon the former. Philipp
scientific method (basing his theory Lenard is also cited as one of the sources for the
on observations about the universe), John Dalton, former being true, which could refer to the
Lenard-Hertz experiments on photoelectric
leading to scientists ignoring his
conjectures. In addition, he was 1803 effects, but no credible secondary sources can be
overshadowed by Aristotle’s ideas of found on these discoveries.
elements (earth, water, air, fire) and All in all, later discoveries did prove cathode rays
indefinitely divisible objects for over were made of negatively charged subatomic
two millennia. There are other flaws particles. Thomson called them corpuscles, before
with this theory, such as indivisibility then preferring the term electrons (from Hendrik
(disproved by subatomic particles) Lorentz). Its role as a constituent of an atom was
and constant mass for atoms with firmly outlined when Robert Millikan determined This model would later be dispro
the same chemical properties the charge of an electron in 1909, showing its mass conducted by Thomson’s own student
(disproved by isotopes). was smaller than atoms.
, In 1913, Ernest Rutherford’s students, Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden, aimed alpha particles (from at gold foil Niels Bohr, 1913
(for its malleability) and recorded where they landed using In 1913,
a scintillation sheet (made from zinc sulphide, that would solution t
light up when hit with alpha particles). Assuming the plum question a
pudding model was correct, only minor deflections should model: why
have occurred. Instead, a small number were deflected by spiral into
Ernest large angles and or even coming straight back. This led
Rutherford to conclude there must be a positive
proposed e
in predete
Rutherford, concentration of charge in the atom, with the rest being
empty space.
shells wi
energies as
1911 (+ 1920) However, this experiment was confirming that the atom Electrons c
had a nucleus, not discovering it. Rutherford theorised that the shells
there was a positively charged nucleus in 1911 based on the emit energy
1909 Geiger-Marsden experiment On a Diffuse Reflection of
the α-Particles, where alpha particles reflected off Because quantum physics is strange, this model only w
platinum in 1/8000 cases. atoms and not much else. This is due to the Heis
Sources as reputable as BBC Bitesize misreport the Principle, where we can’t know both the position
findings’ dates, and many others seem to imply that only electron at once.
the observations found here led to Rutherford’s
conclusions.
In 1919, Rutherford fired alpha particles at nitrogen-14,
Erwin Schrö
finding a hydrogen nucleus was emitted. This hydrogen Er
1913 (gold foil nucleus was named a proton. This emission was due to the m
1909 experiment) nucleus being unstable, emitting a proton. This is revered de
as the first nuclear reaction. th
1932- ex
m
Strong nuclear force (keeping nuclei James Chadwick, 1932 el
together) deduced – Hideki Yukawa, Rutherford theorised a neutrally charged subatomic wa
1935 particle weighing the mass of a proton after As a result, orbitals and subshells (shells that have or
Quarks discovered by firing electrons discovering oxygen-17. Chadwick proved this different energies within themselves) were re
at protons – Murray Gell-Mann, experimentally by bombarding beryllium with alpha discovered, helping understand the mechanics ca
George Zweig; 1964 particles, emitting a subatomic particle with the behind transition metals, d-block elements, and op
Gluons discovered – DESY; 1979 same qualities. This would be named a neutron, sulphur breaking the octet rule. sh
which can be found in all nuclei (minus hydrogen).
, Fundamental John Dalton, 1803 –
elements composed of
particles indivisible atoms Niels Bohr, 1913 – shells
J.J Thomson, 1904 – Erwin Schrödinger, 1926 –
electrons are present orbitals and subshells
Ernest Rutherford, 1911 – James Chadwick, 1932 –
empty space and neutrons
positively charged
nucleus
Relative Relative Position
mass charge Nucleon
protons 1 +1 Nucleus together
nuclea
neutrons 1 0 Nucleus
electrons 1/1840 -1 Shells
Mass number, Atomic number (Z) – number of protons
Mass number (A) – number of nucleons
Ar – the average m
atom of an element
atomic number, Isotopes have the same number of
isotopes), compare
the mass of one
isotopes protons, but differ in number of neutrons carbon-12
, Electron arrangement Shells → Subshells → Orbita
Bohr model Noble gas + Lewis Orbitals (2 electrons) – 3D regi
shorthand structure space where electrons are fou
different energies
[Ar] 4s1
S-orbital: spherical
P-orbital: dumbbell shaped
Shorthand Longhand
[2,8,8,1] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Transition metal – elements fo
Pauli exclusion principle ion(s) with a partially filled su
Orbitals hold two electrons with
opposite spins
Weird rules
Aufbau principle
4s orbitals are filled befor
Electrons enter the lowest
3d orbitals (technically, n
energy orbital available
but also, yes) [1]
(very complicated due to electron
repulsion and nuclear charge) [1] 4s orbitals are emptied
first in ions
Hund’s rule
Electrons enter orbitals on their own, Cr = [Ar] 4s1 3d5
pairing up when only necessary Cu = [Ar] 4s1 3d10
Year 1 Year 2
Atomic structure Thermodynamics
Amount of substance Rate equations
Bonding Kp
Energetics Electrochemistry
Kinetics pH
Equilibria
Redox
, Atomic
structure
• The history of the atom
• Fundamental particles
• Mass number, atomic number,
isotopes
• Electron arrangement
• Mass spectroscopy (theory)
• Mass spectroscopy
(calculations)
• Ionisation energy
, Democritus John Dalton proposed 5 postulates of the atom:
19th century scientists (such as Mic
discovered charged glass tubes
c.430 BCE • Matter is made of indivisible, indestructible
atoms
J.J. Thomson, vacuum would luminesce. This glo
a straight line, and then named ca
• All atoms of an element are identical 1904 Goldstein in 1876.
• Different elements have different weights
Cathode rays were proven to be d
and chemical properties
fields by Jean Perrin in 1895, a
• Compounds are made when atoms combine
replicated his experiment to prove
in whole number ratios
way negatively charged particles w
• Atoms cannot be created or destroyed (see
Thomson’s second experiment wou
Lavoisier’s experiments proving the law of
Hertz’s failed experiments, trying t
conservation of mass)
cathode rays. By creating a bet
predecessors, he could successfu
This recognised how elements can differ, and
rays were negatively charged afte
applied the scientific method to atoms,
field to the rays.
solidifying Democritus’s philosophy in science.
Democritus, a Greek philosopher,
However, it still falls short to retroactive His third experiment combined the previous two, In 1904, Thomson presented the p
theorised that atoms (small
knowledge, such as isotopes and subatomic allowing him to control the strengths of the where electrons are the only cons
indivisible parts) make up all
particles. It also failed to explain the formation electrical and magnetic fields to measure the enclosed in a cloud of positive
objects. Much like a rock split in half
of isomers and their unique qualities. Most length of deflection and energy carried. From these retroactively disproven by curren
holds the same properties, any given
notably, he believed that compounds with two measurements, he could calculate the mass to nucleus.
object would keep their properties if
elements in them (such as water) would bond 1 charge ratio, which ended up being over one
divided to their smallest parts. He
to 1 (creating HO instead of H2O). This was thousand times (1000x) smaller than a hydrogen
also theorised that different
because chemists worked with masses as atom. Either the constituents of the cathode rays
materials were composed of
ratios, not considering the number of atoms. were very light (with an atom-like charge) or had
different atoms, with size, mass and
This would later be rectified after Avogadro’s an enormous charge (with an atom-like mass).
shape varying. Other properties
law (equal volumes of gas have equal numbers Despite sources explaining the former is true, the
were determined by connection
of molecules) was applied to stoichiometry. means to which he reached the conclusion is very
between atoms (e.g., taste, colour).
While an impressive observation, much disorganised. One source outright claims
Democritus did not apply the Thomson just “decided” upon the former. Philipp
scientific method (basing his theory Lenard is also cited as one of the sources for the
on observations about the universe), John Dalton, former being true, which could refer to the
Lenard-Hertz experiments on photoelectric
leading to scientists ignoring his
conjectures. In addition, he was 1803 effects, but no credible secondary sources can be
overshadowed by Aristotle’s ideas of found on these discoveries.
elements (earth, water, air, fire) and All in all, later discoveries did prove cathode rays
indefinitely divisible objects for over were made of negatively charged subatomic
two millennia. There are other flaws particles. Thomson called them corpuscles, before
with this theory, such as indivisibility then preferring the term electrons (from Hendrik
(disproved by subatomic particles) Lorentz). Its role as a constituent of an atom was
and constant mass for atoms with firmly outlined when Robert Millikan determined This model would later be dispro
the same chemical properties the charge of an electron in 1909, showing its mass conducted by Thomson’s own student
(disproved by isotopes). was smaller than atoms.
, In 1913, Ernest Rutherford’s students, Hans Geiger and
Ernest Marsden, aimed alpha particles (from at gold foil Niels Bohr, 1913
(for its malleability) and recorded where they landed using In 1913,
a scintillation sheet (made from zinc sulphide, that would solution t
light up when hit with alpha particles). Assuming the plum question a
pudding model was correct, only minor deflections should model: why
have occurred. Instead, a small number were deflected by spiral into
Ernest large angles and or even coming straight back. This led
Rutherford to conclude there must be a positive
proposed e
in predete
Rutherford, concentration of charge in the atom, with the rest being
empty space.
shells wi
energies as
1911 (+ 1920) However, this experiment was confirming that the atom Electrons c
had a nucleus, not discovering it. Rutherford theorised that the shells
there was a positively charged nucleus in 1911 based on the emit energy
1909 Geiger-Marsden experiment On a Diffuse Reflection of
the α-Particles, where alpha particles reflected off Because quantum physics is strange, this model only w
platinum in 1/8000 cases. atoms and not much else. This is due to the Heis
Sources as reputable as BBC Bitesize misreport the Principle, where we can’t know both the position
findings’ dates, and many others seem to imply that only electron at once.
the observations found here led to Rutherford’s
conclusions.
In 1919, Rutherford fired alpha particles at nitrogen-14,
Erwin Schrö
finding a hydrogen nucleus was emitted. This hydrogen Er
1913 (gold foil nucleus was named a proton. This emission was due to the m
1909 experiment) nucleus being unstable, emitting a proton. This is revered de
as the first nuclear reaction. th
1932- ex
m
Strong nuclear force (keeping nuclei James Chadwick, 1932 el
together) deduced – Hideki Yukawa, Rutherford theorised a neutrally charged subatomic wa
1935 particle weighing the mass of a proton after As a result, orbitals and subshells (shells that have or
Quarks discovered by firing electrons discovering oxygen-17. Chadwick proved this different energies within themselves) were re
at protons – Murray Gell-Mann, experimentally by bombarding beryllium with alpha discovered, helping understand the mechanics ca
George Zweig; 1964 particles, emitting a subatomic particle with the behind transition metals, d-block elements, and op
Gluons discovered – DESY; 1979 same qualities. This would be named a neutron, sulphur breaking the octet rule. sh
which can be found in all nuclei (minus hydrogen).
, Fundamental John Dalton, 1803 –
elements composed of
particles indivisible atoms Niels Bohr, 1913 – shells
J.J Thomson, 1904 – Erwin Schrödinger, 1926 –
electrons are present orbitals and subshells
Ernest Rutherford, 1911 – James Chadwick, 1932 –
empty space and neutrons
positively charged
nucleus
Relative Relative Position
mass charge Nucleon
protons 1 +1 Nucleus together
nuclea
neutrons 1 0 Nucleus
electrons 1/1840 -1 Shells
Mass number, Atomic number (Z) – number of protons
Mass number (A) – number of nucleons
Ar – the average m
atom of an element
atomic number, Isotopes have the same number of
isotopes), compare
the mass of one
isotopes protons, but differ in number of neutrons carbon-12
, Electron arrangement Shells → Subshells → Orbita
Bohr model Noble gas + Lewis Orbitals (2 electrons) – 3D regi
shorthand structure space where electrons are fou
different energies
[Ar] 4s1
S-orbital: spherical
P-orbital: dumbbell shaped
Shorthand Longhand
[2,8,8,1] 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
Transition metal – elements fo
Pauli exclusion principle ion(s) with a partially filled su
Orbitals hold two electrons with
opposite spins
Weird rules
Aufbau principle
4s orbitals are filled befor
Electrons enter the lowest
3d orbitals (technically, n
energy orbital available
but also, yes) [1]
(very complicated due to electron
repulsion and nuclear charge) [1] 4s orbitals are emptied
first in ions
Hund’s rule
Electrons enter orbitals on their own, Cr = [Ar] 4s1 3d5
pairing up when only necessary Cu = [Ar] 4s1 3d10
