Politics 1
• Peel split Conservative party over corn law repeal.
• Corn laws were protectionist laws to keep UK corn and bread selling
• Kept bread prices high
• Due to 1845 potato blight and corn laws keeping food prices higher, Ireland suffered
• Tory party were against repeal of corn laws so Peel and many other Tory MPs resigned and
formed the Peelites in 1846 after the repeal
• 1832 Reform Act strengthened concept of representative government as the electorate
expanded to Middle classes making it more representative as it considered the vote of a
larger proportion of the country (1/6 of men)
• Made the political system more democratic as it was more representative of the entire
country as opposed to just the landowning elites
• This weakened the power of the monarch and the landowning aristocracy as more people
had a say in parliamentary matters.
• Industrialisation during this time meant that Britain was increasingly wealthy meaning more
people qualified for the franchise meaning the electorate gradually increased
• Constitutional monarchy meant parliament made the laws, but they needed the monarch’s
consent
• In mid 19th century, Parliamentary powers replaced monarchic powers
• House of Commons had increasing influence over the House of Lords due to expansion of
electorate, but House of Lords could still block measures passed by House of Commons
• MPs chosen by elections every 7 years
• Commons originally reflected dominance of Lords (commons were relatives/friends of
Lords who were dependent on them for power)
• This changed after 1832 reform act where many Middle class people became MPs and
voted
• After industrialisation, many Middle class people fought for enfranchisement because they
significantly contributed to British success (rich business owners, merchants etc) and felt
that aristocracy didn’t act in their best interests.
• Organisation of constituencies disadvantaged Middle class because industrial towns were
severely underrepresented as they had far more people but only 2 MPs and boroughs and
counties had different voting qualifications
• Upper classes mainly won county seats (countryside)
• Redistribution of Seats in 1832 Reform Act meant large cities e.g. Manchester was
represented for the first time and small boroughs where elections were controlled by
landowners lost their seats
• Aristocracy no longer had a political monopoly and had to share with the middle classes
who dominated industrial towns
,• More middle-class men were MPs but by 1850s only 20-25% of MPs had no aristocratic
connection. - Not fully representative
• MPs not paid yet. Running cost to be an MP was £500 per year and election expenses were
£1000-3000
• In 1858, income qualification of £300 to stand as MP was abolished- slightly more
representative and democratic
• Other reform bills failed as middle class was satisfied with reforms and Chartism failed in
1840s due to lack of support/ public pressure. Therefore, only men of property could vote,
and no women could vote
• By 1886 2/3 of MPs were Middle class.
• They mostly voted Whig while Tories had a period of struggle due to the weakening
aristocracy in franchise
• Whigs were Pro Reform e.g. Lord Derby
• Peelites had Middle class interests instead of aristocratic interests
• Aristocrats were wealthy due to land. Made wealthier by 19th century agricultural
improvements and increased demand for coal iron etc found on their land
• Even though they no longer had monopoly, their power in counties strengthened and they
had most political, social and economic control
• Voting in hustings meant bribery especially with landowners as they could threaten to evict
people who voted differently from them
• Most PMs were Lords(unelected) making Britain less democratic as they weren't
answerable to the public
• Middle class acceptance of political changes, defence of the constitution and newfound
influence slowly shaped them into the new ruling elite
• 1850s/60s was prosperous but politically unstable as there were many short governments
and 5 PMs in this time
• Lord Russel's government ended in 1851. Minority government. Weak as he tried to
encourage political reforms e.g. Working-class suffrage and toleration of non-conformists
and Jews which made him unpopular
• After Russel, Lord Derby had a Tory minority gov- lasted months
• 1852 Lord Aberdeen led Whig/Peelites with a strong cabinet and a reforming programme
(education, religious tolerance, penal reform, parliamentary reform) with Gladstone as
Chancellor of the Exchequer who introduced free trade budget
• Crimean war (1854-56) put reforms on hold and destroyed Aberdeen's gov in 1855
• 1855 Whig Lord Palmerston elected. Lost in 1858 due to his response on the Assassination
of Napoleon III
• Derby returned in 1858 with Tory minority with Disraeli. Collapsed in 15 moths
• 1859 Liberals formed and won majority with Palmerston as PM. However, Palmerston
blocked all proposed reforms until his death in 1865
• Russel took over from 1865-66 with a Liberal majority. Led to more Liberal unity
, • Derby Third Ministry 1866-68 passed the Second Reform Act with Disraeli’s help.
• Disraeli became PM in 1868 after Derby retired
• MPs selected nepotistically instead of meritocratically explaining governmental instability
• Party confusion (Peelites unsure if to ally with Liberals on Tory, Radicals not fully aligning
with Whig ideologies etc) led to confused politics during this time
• The fact that there were 9 ministries between 1851-67 shows political instability where 2
party system is unlikely to form. OR a formative stage where new political alignments
emerged.
Liberal Support
• Liberals were combination of Whigs Peelites and Radicals
• Dominated politics from 1866-86
• Most Liberals were m/c who believed in Individual liberty, free trade, freedom of press and
religious freedom. Many were non-conformists who wanted the separation of Church and
State
• Nonconformists are protestants who separated from CofE
• Radicals like John Bright opposed political/economic dominance of the upper classes and
CofE Privilege as official church and wanted more reform
• Gladstone became liberal leader in 1866 after Russel resigned.
• Gladstone’s aims were peace, retrenchment and reform
• Peace was with other nations, no war and free trade
• Retrenchment was reducing taxes by reducing spending-Laissez-faire
• Reform was hanging laws and institutions that prevented people acting freely
• These 3 tied in with laissez-faire and self-help
• Liberals believed in religious toleration and free trade
• Understood that an overhaul of the parliamentary system was needed to reflect changes in
wealth of population after the industrial revolution
• Self-help made popular by Smiles’ Book “self-help” was a byproduct of laissez-faire
• Prosperity was seen as a reward for hard work for Middle class
• Self-help became virtue of skilled workers to present themselves as respectable and
worthy of the vote
• Liberal support came from towns and boroughs because urban areas were full of
prosperous Middle-class men who wanted to retain/ build wealth (retrenchment)
• Skilled craftsmen in large towns had same goals as Middle class but on a smaller scale
• After 1867 Reform Act gave them the vote, they helped keep Liberals in power for nearly 20
years
• Support for liberals grew from:
1. Rise of Provincial press- London press dominated newspaper industry and railways,
telegraphs and removal of stamp duties let the press circulate more. Most new press
, was Liberal in terms of ownership, readership, and employees. This influenced a lot of
people across the Northeast
2. Craft Unions- Developed during 1850s as part of Trade Union Movement. Skilled
workers e.g. engineers, boilermakers etc were represented. This group benefitted from
1867 Reform act and considered themselves the elite of WC who could improve
through self-help and self-education which agreed with Liberal ideologies
3. Non-conformist- They wished to receive equal treatment with CofE and end its
Priveledge as established church. This campaign was led by Liberation society which
became political wing of non-conformists who backed liberal party due to their aim of
religious tolerance and the most influential non-conformists like Cadbury and Greggs
lived in large industrial towns were Liberals thrived
Conservative support
• Tories lost over repeal of corn law 1846
• Not many good Tory politicians remained to lead party in House of Commons except
Disraeli, only viable candidate
• Disraeli didn't come from aristocratic background and was Jewish. Although baptised
into CofE, he still faced religious prejudice
• Made himself indispensable to Tory by being smart, hardworking and a great debater
• Even as party leader, he was despised by many in his party
• After Derby retired in 1868, Disraeli briefly PM. He realised to win electorate support, he
needed new policies
• He held public meetings to spread message to illiterate public.
• There was competition from Liberal speakers e.g. Bright
• Disraeli persuaded Tories against protectionism as it was clear that Whig’s free trade
policies improved living standards
• Encouraged his party to accept parliamentary reform and alter the party’ image
accordingly
• Developed ideas on social reforms that he spoke about without committing himself to
detailed proposals (maybe opportunistic to gain power, votes and party popularity,
possibly genuine as in 1845 he wrote a book “Sybil” about social reforms)
• After Tory defeat in 1868 general election, he reorganised the party, winning in 1874
Extension of the Franchise
• During 1860s, changing party attitudes helped bring forth parliamentary reform
• Old Whigs dominated by aristocracy transformed into Liberal Party where middle class
members had growing influence
• These businessmen (Middle class) sought to extend their status and power even if only
through seat redistribution
, • Gladstone became convinced of the necessity of reform and began to lead Liberals in
this direction
• This encouraged radical reform groups who often spoke up for Working class and
increased their influence due to the change in ideologies
• Tories accepted need for change but there was a degree of opportunism (to win support
from new electorate)
Increasing demands for reform
1. Rise in Living standards and population changes
• Improvement in Skilled WC standard of living and education made Liberals more
prone to accepting ideas for enfranchisement for skilled
• Skilled workers saved wages in Friendly societies or Post Office Savings Banks
proving themselves to be responsible and worthy of vote (self-help ideology)
• Uneven constituency size due to population growth and urbanisation (people going
from countrysides to cities) leading to underrepresented industrial towns. MC
businessmen in Liberals party wanted increased influence in those areas to extend
their political influence
2. Radical pressure
• Radicals kept up pressure for reform in and out of parliament. Bright toured Britain
encouraging ordinary men to demand democratic rights
• Bright put forward arguments for skilled workers for extending the franchise
• Writings of Mill (MP in 1865) raised interests in political debates for extending the
franchise
3. Growth of interest in democratic ideal
• American Civil war (1861-65) and Italian Unification (1859-61) seen by many British
people as struggles for democracy which was influential in creating a popular
interest in reform
• Garibaldi’s visit to London 1864 excited crowds and led radicals to revive an interest
in reform
• Thousands flocked to hear Garibaldi and when authorities restricted his public
meetings angry protests occurred. This repressive response led to the eventual
founding of The Reform League 1865 (working class)
4. Pressures from Reform League
• Reform league mainly working class with TU support and some m/c support
• Aimed to work towards democracy through universal male suffrage and radical
reform
• TU men in London Trades Council met in 1866 to organise a reform campaign
• Reform league more successful than reform union (1864 Middle class) which
mainly called for secret ballots and redistribution of seats
, The Second Reform Act 1867
• 1866- Russell and Gladstone presented a well-reasoned, moderate reform bill to give
skilled workers the vote. (small tenant farmers in country)
• They expected opposition of Tories claiming it was too far, but they faced fierce opposition
from Liberals also who claimed it would give political power to the “ignorant”
• The bill was rejected
• Russel resigned and was replaced by minority tory gov with Derby as PM and Disraeli as
Leader of the Commons
• Worsening economic conditions and WC frustration led Derby and Disraeli to quickly
introduce a reform bill 1867
• Break in economic prosperity was main catalyst for reform
• WC feeling effects of previous bad harvests
• Stock market tumbled when prestigious London financial house collapsed- domino effect
led to collapse of many businesses and increased outrage/ violence e.g. Hyde Park
demonstrations May 1867
• Disraeli accepted the Hodgkinson’s amendment to get bill through parliament with less
opposition (min gov)
• Derby secured it in Lords by convincing them it would secure Tory Victory
• 1867 Reform act led to political power shifting away from landed elite
• However, Disraeli was opportunistic and thought he would win the newly enfranchised
working class with his reform to regain tory popularity
• Tories lost 1868 election as the new largely urban electorate rewarded Gladstone for
consistent reform support
1867 Reform Act
Franchise extended to:
• All male households over 21 who lived in the same address for a year
• Lodgers who paid £10 per year in rent
In the counties:
• Forty-shilling freeholders (bought the property)
• £5 copyholders (Rented land from a Lord) and £12 tenants-at will (renter with no fixed term
agreement)
Effects of 1867 Reform Act
• Gave Wc men the vote for the first time
• Number of voters increased from 1m to 2.5m (1/3 of male population)
• Peel split Conservative party over corn law repeal.
• Corn laws were protectionist laws to keep UK corn and bread selling
• Kept bread prices high
• Due to 1845 potato blight and corn laws keeping food prices higher, Ireland suffered
• Tory party were against repeal of corn laws so Peel and many other Tory MPs resigned and
formed the Peelites in 1846 after the repeal
• 1832 Reform Act strengthened concept of representative government as the electorate
expanded to Middle classes making it more representative as it considered the vote of a
larger proportion of the country (1/6 of men)
• Made the political system more democratic as it was more representative of the entire
country as opposed to just the landowning elites
• This weakened the power of the monarch and the landowning aristocracy as more people
had a say in parliamentary matters.
• Industrialisation during this time meant that Britain was increasingly wealthy meaning more
people qualified for the franchise meaning the electorate gradually increased
• Constitutional monarchy meant parliament made the laws, but they needed the monarch’s
consent
• In mid 19th century, Parliamentary powers replaced monarchic powers
• House of Commons had increasing influence over the House of Lords due to expansion of
electorate, but House of Lords could still block measures passed by House of Commons
• MPs chosen by elections every 7 years
• Commons originally reflected dominance of Lords (commons were relatives/friends of
Lords who were dependent on them for power)
• This changed after 1832 reform act where many Middle class people became MPs and
voted
• After industrialisation, many Middle class people fought for enfranchisement because they
significantly contributed to British success (rich business owners, merchants etc) and felt
that aristocracy didn’t act in their best interests.
• Organisation of constituencies disadvantaged Middle class because industrial towns were
severely underrepresented as they had far more people but only 2 MPs and boroughs and
counties had different voting qualifications
• Upper classes mainly won county seats (countryside)
• Redistribution of Seats in 1832 Reform Act meant large cities e.g. Manchester was
represented for the first time and small boroughs where elections were controlled by
landowners lost their seats
• Aristocracy no longer had a political monopoly and had to share with the middle classes
who dominated industrial towns
,• More middle-class men were MPs but by 1850s only 20-25% of MPs had no aristocratic
connection. - Not fully representative
• MPs not paid yet. Running cost to be an MP was £500 per year and election expenses were
£1000-3000
• In 1858, income qualification of £300 to stand as MP was abolished- slightly more
representative and democratic
• Other reform bills failed as middle class was satisfied with reforms and Chartism failed in
1840s due to lack of support/ public pressure. Therefore, only men of property could vote,
and no women could vote
• By 1886 2/3 of MPs were Middle class.
• They mostly voted Whig while Tories had a period of struggle due to the weakening
aristocracy in franchise
• Whigs were Pro Reform e.g. Lord Derby
• Peelites had Middle class interests instead of aristocratic interests
• Aristocrats were wealthy due to land. Made wealthier by 19th century agricultural
improvements and increased demand for coal iron etc found on their land
• Even though they no longer had monopoly, their power in counties strengthened and they
had most political, social and economic control
• Voting in hustings meant bribery especially with landowners as they could threaten to evict
people who voted differently from them
• Most PMs were Lords(unelected) making Britain less democratic as they weren't
answerable to the public
• Middle class acceptance of political changes, defence of the constitution and newfound
influence slowly shaped them into the new ruling elite
• 1850s/60s was prosperous but politically unstable as there were many short governments
and 5 PMs in this time
• Lord Russel's government ended in 1851. Minority government. Weak as he tried to
encourage political reforms e.g. Working-class suffrage and toleration of non-conformists
and Jews which made him unpopular
• After Russel, Lord Derby had a Tory minority gov- lasted months
• 1852 Lord Aberdeen led Whig/Peelites with a strong cabinet and a reforming programme
(education, religious tolerance, penal reform, parliamentary reform) with Gladstone as
Chancellor of the Exchequer who introduced free trade budget
• Crimean war (1854-56) put reforms on hold and destroyed Aberdeen's gov in 1855
• 1855 Whig Lord Palmerston elected. Lost in 1858 due to his response on the Assassination
of Napoleon III
• Derby returned in 1858 with Tory minority with Disraeli. Collapsed in 15 moths
• 1859 Liberals formed and won majority with Palmerston as PM. However, Palmerston
blocked all proposed reforms until his death in 1865
• Russel took over from 1865-66 with a Liberal majority. Led to more Liberal unity
, • Derby Third Ministry 1866-68 passed the Second Reform Act with Disraeli’s help.
• Disraeli became PM in 1868 after Derby retired
• MPs selected nepotistically instead of meritocratically explaining governmental instability
• Party confusion (Peelites unsure if to ally with Liberals on Tory, Radicals not fully aligning
with Whig ideologies etc) led to confused politics during this time
• The fact that there were 9 ministries between 1851-67 shows political instability where 2
party system is unlikely to form. OR a formative stage where new political alignments
emerged.
Liberal Support
• Liberals were combination of Whigs Peelites and Radicals
• Dominated politics from 1866-86
• Most Liberals were m/c who believed in Individual liberty, free trade, freedom of press and
religious freedom. Many were non-conformists who wanted the separation of Church and
State
• Nonconformists are protestants who separated from CofE
• Radicals like John Bright opposed political/economic dominance of the upper classes and
CofE Privilege as official church and wanted more reform
• Gladstone became liberal leader in 1866 after Russel resigned.
• Gladstone’s aims were peace, retrenchment and reform
• Peace was with other nations, no war and free trade
• Retrenchment was reducing taxes by reducing spending-Laissez-faire
• Reform was hanging laws and institutions that prevented people acting freely
• These 3 tied in with laissez-faire and self-help
• Liberals believed in religious toleration and free trade
• Understood that an overhaul of the parliamentary system was needed to reflect changes in
wealth of population after the industrial revolution
• Self-help made popular by Smiles’ Book “self-help” was a byproduct of laissez-faire
• Prosperity was seen as a reward for hard work for Middle class
• Self-help became virtue of skilled workers to present themselves as respectable and
worthy of the vote
• Liberal support came from towns and boroughs because urban areas were full of
prosperous Middle-class men who wanted to retain/ build wealth (retrenchment)
• Skilled craftsmen in large towns had same goals as Middle class but on a smaller scale
• After 1867 Reform Act gave them the vote, they helped keep Liberals in power for nearly 20
years
• Support for liberals grew from:
1. Rise of Provincial press- London press dominated newspaper industry and railways,
telegraphs and removal of stamp duties let the press circulate more. Most new press
, was Liberal in terms of ownership, readership, and employees. This influenced a lot of
people across the Northeast
2. Craft Unions- Developed during 1850s as part of Trade Union Movement. Skilled
workers e.g. engineers, boilermakers etc were represented. This group benefitted from
1867 Reform act and considered themselves the elite of WC who could improve
through self-help and self-education which agreed with Liberal ideologies
3. Non-conformist- They wished to receive equal treatment with CofE and end its
Priveledge as established church. This campaign was led by Liberation society which
became political wing of non-conformists who backed liberal party due to their aim of
religious tolerance and the most influential non-conformists like Cadbury and Greggs
lived in large industrial towns were Liberals thrived
Conservative support
• Tories lost over repeal of corn law 1846
• Not many good Tory politicians remained to lead party in House of Commons except
Disraeli, only viable candidate
• Disraeli didn't come from aristocratic background and was Jewish. Although baptised
into CofE, he still faced religious prejudice
• Made himself indispensable to Tory by being smart, hardworking and a great debater
• Even as party leader, he was despised by many in his party
• After Derby retired in 1868, Disraeli briefly PM. He realised to win electorate support, he
needed new policies
• He held public meetings to spread message to illiterate public.
• There was competition from Liberal speakers e.g. Bright
• Disraeli persuaded Tories against protectionism as it was clear that Whig’s free trade
policies improved living standards
• Encouraged his party to accept parliamentary reform and alter the party’ image
accordingly
• Developed ideas on social reforms that he spoke about without committing himself to
detailed proposals (maybe opportunistic to gain power, votes and party popularity,
possibly genuine as in 1845 he wrote a book “Sybil” about social reforms)
• After Tory defeat in 1868 general election, he reorganised the party, winning in 1874
Extension of the Franchise
• During 1860s, changing party attitudes helped bring forth parliamentary reform
• Old Whigs dominated by aristocracy transformed into Liberal Party where middle class
members had growing influence
• These businessmen (Middle class) sought to extend their status and power even if only
through seat redistribution
, • Gladstone became convinced of the necessity of reform and began to lead Liberals in
this direction
• This encouraged radical reform groups who often spoke up for Working class and
increased their influence due to the change in ideologies
• Tories accepted need for change but there was a degree of opportunism (to win support
from new electorate)
Increasing demands for reform
1. Rise in Living standards and population changes
• Improvement in Skilled WC standard of living and education made Liberals more
prone to accepting ideas for enfranchisement for skilled
• Skilled workers saved wages in Friendly societies or Post Office Savings Banks
proving themselves to be responsible and worthy of vote (self-help ideology)
• Uneven constituency size due to population growth and urbanisation (people going
from countrysides to cities) leading to underrepresented industrial towns. MC
businessmen in Liberals party wanted increased influence in those areas to extend
their political influence
2. Radical pressure
• Radicals kept up pressure for reform in and out of parliament. Bright toured Britain
encouraging ordinary men to demand democratic rights
• Bright put forward arguments for skilled workers for extending the franchise
• Writings of Mill (MP in 1865) raised interests in political debates for extending the
franchise
3. Growth of interest in democratic ideal
• American Civil war (1861-65) and Italian Unification (1859-61) seen by many British
people as struggles for democracy which was influential in creating a popular
interest in reform
• Garibaldi’s visit to London 1864 excited crowds and led radicals to revive an interest
in reform
• Thousands flocked to hear Garibaldi and when authorities restricted his public
meetings angry protests occurred. This repressive response led to the eventual
founding of The Reform League 1865 (working class)
4. Pressures from Reform League
• Reform league mainly working class with TU support and some m/c support
• Aimed to work towards democracy through universal male suffrage and radical
reform
• TU men in London Trades Council met in 1866 to organise a reform campaign
• Reform league more successful than reform union (1864 Middle class) which
mainly called for secret ballots and redistribution of seats
, The Second Reform Act 1867
• 1866- Russell and Gladstone presented a well-reasoned, moderate reform bill to give
skilled workers the vote. (small tenant farmers in country)
• They expected opposition of Tories claiming it was too far, but they faced fierce opposition
from Liberals also who claimed it would give political power to the “ignorant”
• The bill was rejected
• Russel resigned and was replaced by minority tory gov with Derby as PM and Disraeli as
Leader of the Commons
• Worsening economic conditions and WC frustration led Derby and Disraeli to quickly
introduce a reform bill 1867
• Break in economic prosperity was main catalyst for reform
• WC feeling effects of previous bad harvests
• Stock market tumbled when prestigious London financial house collapsed- domino effect
led to collapse of many businesses and increased outrage/ violence e.g. Hyde Park
demonstrations May 1867
• Disraeli accepted the Hodgkinson’s amendment to get bill through parliament with less
opposition (min gov)
• Derby secured it in Lords by convincing them it would secure Tory Victory
• 1867 Reform act led to political power shifting away from landed elite
• However, Disraeli was opportunistic and thought he would win the newly enfranchised
working class with his reform to regain tory popularity
• Tories lost 1868 election as the new largely urban electorate rewarded Gladstone for
consistent reform support
1867 Reform Act
Franchise extended to:
• All male households over 21 who lived in the same address for a year
• Lodgers who paid £10 per year in rent
In the counties:
• Forty-shilling freeholders (bought the property)
• £5 copyholders (Rented land from a Lord) and £12 tenants-at will (renter with no fixed term
agreement)
Effects of 1867 Reform Act
• Gave Wc men the vote for the first time
• Number of voters increased from 1m to 2.5m (1/3 of male population)
