The Crusades (1071-1204)
The origins of conflict and the First Crusade.
Christianity in Western Europe;
The role of the church in the late 11th century; the rising influence of the papacy-
- The medieval church was an all powerful, international institution: Europe was bound by its
rules, popes and bishops.
- The relationship between the Pope and the nobility in Europe was very important.
- Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church, but the right to appoint
to lucrative posts was often sold to ruling nobility - a practice called simony, which gave the
nobility much needed income.
- Canon law was introduced which put an end to this.
- Medieval power often saw the church authority as being divided between spiritual and earthly
powers.
- One of the most difficult periods was 1056, when the Holy Roman Empire tried to assert their
independence from the Emperor Henry IV.
- Fight against the papacy down as the ‘Investiture contest’
- Church reform movement: Controversy began over whether or not the nobility had the right to
appoint individuals to church positions.
- The creation of the ‘College of Cardinals’ was formed to elect future popes.
- Attack on simony began in 1073 when Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Henry.
- They wanted a weaker emperor so they could seize royal holdings and build forts.
- Gregory managed to negotiate with Normans of Sicily for reinforcements.
- Combination of forces made Henry back down as emperor.
- Late 1084, Pope Gregory under pressure from leaders of people of Rome who disapproved of
Norman allies - Gregory needed to escape and died in 1085.
- The investiture contest, after years of secular rulers investing and making money from church
appointments, shows that the popes of 11th century were becoming more powerful.
- Urban II was a true Gregorian reformer and was a realist who recognised that he would need
Norman help to succeed in asserting his position as Pope.
- It took him 6 years to reach Rome, where he opened diplomatic relations with Byzantine empire
and Alexius Komnenus.
- By bringing in Normans to fight for them, Popes Gregory and urban establish this idea of an
army but it was clear that previous popes were no strangers to battles, but now the papacy was
getting stronger and asserting itself above power of kings.
Islam c1071: Muslim expansion and the rise of Seljuk Turks.
- Following death of Prophet Muhammad, Islam split into two.
- By 1095 the two branches Sunni and Shia of Islam had control of vast swatches of land in the
near east.
Islamic society and economy-
- Led under the leadership of Abd-al-Rahman.
- Islamic cities were bigger and more civilised than europeans.
- Baghdad numbered around 800,800 population. by contrast, London and Paris may have had
around 20,000.
- Islamic towns had variety of functions: a trade centre, a scared centre, transport hub, garrison
town of admin centre.
- Islamic wealth was solely based on agrarian economy with the production of foodstuffs meaning
that land was key. Typical goods for sale were spices and cloth and incoming goods from
Europe included fur and timber.
,- Richard Cobb’s assessment on Islamic society ‘the Islamic world, by contrast (to
developing region of Europe) seemed the very model of civilisation: it was wealthy,
orderly, enlightened, imperial and protected by a merciful God.’
Islamic politics-
- Circle of Equity - summarises what it takes to be a good ruler of Islamic society.
- At top was the caliph (symbolic figurehead) and potent.
- Shi’a caliphate had emerged following conquest of northern Africa and pushed on to Egypt.
From base in Cairo they would fight fro supremacy in Sicily, Syria and Palestine - one eve of
crusades two rival Muslims did not co operate - disunity!
The rise of the Seljuk turks-
- Newer group - recent converts to Islam and Sunni.
- Dominant power in region since 11th century.
- Created power base in Iraq and Iran and consolidated expanded into central and southern Syria
by 1070.
- By 1080’s, their hold had expanded to northern Syria.
- Sulyman and Malik Shah exerted their power over wide area.
- Tutush, Malik’s brother continued family business in north until he died.
- His sons argued between themselves, which allowed Kerbogha of Mosul to become main power
in northern Syria.
- Danishmends controlled north and east Anatolia.
- Sultanate of Rum controlled south and west under Kilij Arslan.
- Struggle for control between rival powers allowed crusader progression as they crossed
Anatolia.
- Seljuk Turk authority rested solely on martial ability.
The Byzantine Empire c1071: the internal problems of the Byzantine empire; the impact of
defeat in Battle of Manzikert.
- The partition of Roman Empire in 395 created west and eastern empire.
- Following civil wars, Diocletian recognised that one person could not rule whole empire, so two
centres held sway; Rome in west and Byzantium in east.
- In 330 Byzantium had become Constantinople, in honour of Emperor Constantine.
- Byzantium dealt badly with threats of normans who were challenging the empire for control.
- By 1071, the Normans had taken Sicily and parts of southern Italy, creating a power base.
- Attempt to deal with Seljuk Turks caused greatest difficulty.
The impact of defeat in Battle of Manzikert-
- In 1071, Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took action against the turks and rode ahead in battle
in Eastern Anatolia at fort of Manzikert.
- Greatly he underestimated the forces.
- Anatolia was lost.
- Caused a mass influx of Byzantines to Constantinople out of fear and led to lack of manpower in
fields hence reduction in tax revenue which caused economic crisis and civil war.
- Peter Frankopan ‘things could scarcely have been worse.’
Alexios Komnenos-
- Took action - Placed in charge of byzantine army to fight threat of Normans in west at Epirus.
- His troops advanced on city and support for emperor fell.
- Alexios was crowned emperor.
- He consolidated his position and quickly turned attention to Norman threat.
- By 1083 he was ready to deal with the Pechenegs and they were completely wiped out and
would pose no further threat to the empire.
- Finally to deal with Turkish threat he used a different tactic - he negotiated with Turkish chief,
Sulayman, who agreed to protect emperors Anatolian holdings.
, - Mutually beneficial agreement - Alexis benefited with ally of able general, who put down on the
Turkish raids against empire and supplied troops occasionally to fight Normans in Durazzo.
Sulyayman benefited in riches and prestige.
- Arrangement worked well until Sulayman’s death and Sultan of Baghdad's death - he needed a
new source of allies to gain control.
The council of Piacenza…
- Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI and Pope Urban II continued to vie for supremacy.
- Urban embarked on tour of Italy and France to assert authority.
- In northern Italian city, he holds a council (March 1095) attended by bishops and other church
officials.
- At this council, envoys of Alexis pleaded for help and the result was good.
Why would Urban help Alexios?
- Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Pope Gregory VII.
- Urban was keen to heal the schism between the catholic and greek orthodox churches and
place Rome at head of a united church.
- This led to another call set for November at Claremont in France.
1095 - importance…marked culmination of several factors that led to call for crusade
- actions of pope who taught to assert papal authority and continue the reforms started by
Gregory.
- the plot/ambition of byzantine emperor who had seized control of an empire and dealt with most
threats facing him,
- The behaviour of the turks who fought to fill the power vacuum created by deaths of Sulayman
and Malik Shah.
Urban II: the reasons for the calling of the First Crusade; responding to the call for help
from the Byzantine Empire; the political and religious motives of the Papacy.
The reasons for the calling of the First Crusade…
- Tomas Asbridge - this crusade was ‘primarily proactive rather than reactive’ and was
designed ‘to meet the demands of the papacy.’
- By 1095, Urban stabilised the position in Rome and co-operated with normans of Sicily and
established a stable power base in Italy.
- He toured furnace hoping to expand power there and set up Claremont council using local
knowledge and contacts.
- Urban's desire to re-establish friendship with byzantine and Alexios as the schism of 1054
relations had been difficult.
- Urban wished to do something about the ruler of Jerusalem.
- Jerusalem was main location for Christ's patrimony and passion, centre of christian world.
- Despite christian pilgrims welcome to Jerusalem this was not enough, Urban wanted Jerusalem
under christian control.
- Urban believed that every soul should be saved - he re-directed violence inherent in medieval
society towards mutually beneficial agreement whereby he could harness knights brutality and
expertise and offer them a gateway to heaven.
The council of Clermont…Urban II call to action in 1095
- There is no surviving Papal Bull setting out Urban's exact sermon at Clermont.
- This gave the chance to inspire unruly lords and knights of western Europe to join forces to fight
against common enemy (Seljuk turks) which would also fit reform movement belief of Libertas,
freeing christian from rule of non believers.
- Robert the Monks account - stresses the fate of Jerusalem and desire to claim it back.
- Filcher of Charters account - stresses Urban's needs for settlement in east as general aim to
recruit and establish Rome as centre of faith.
The origins of conflict and the First Crusade.
Christianity in Western Europe;
The role of the church in the late 11th century; the rising influence of the papacy-
- The medieval church was an all powerful, international institution: Europe was bound by its
rules, popes and bishops.
- The relationship between the Pope and the nobility in Europe was very important.
- Church appointments (investitures) were the responsibility of the church, but the right to appoint
to lucrative posts was often sold to ruling nobility - a practice called simony, which gave the
nobility much needed income.
- Canon law was introduced which put an end to this.
- Medieval power often saw the church authority as being divided between spiritual and earthly
powers.
- One of the most difficult periods was 1056, when the Holy Roman Empire tried to assert their
independence from the Emperor Henry IV.
- Fight against the papacy down as the ‘Investiture contest’
- Church reform movement: Controversy began over whether or not the nobility had the right to
appoint individuals to church positions.
- The creation of the ‘College of Cardinals’ was formed to elect future popes.
- Attack on simony began in 1073 when Pope Gregory VII excommunicated Henry.
- They wanted a weaker emperor so they could seize royal holdings and build forts.
- Gregory managed to negotiate with Normans of Sicily for reinforcements.
- Combination of forces made Henry back down as emperor.
- Late 1084, Pope Gregory under pressure from leaders of people of Rome who disapproved of
Norman allies - Gregory needed to escape and died in 1085.
- The investiture contest, after years of secular rulers investing and making money from church
appointments, shows that the popes of 11th century were becoming more powerful.
- Urban II was a true Gregorian reformer and was a realist who recognised that he would need
Norman help to succeed in asserting his position as Pope.
- It took him 6 years to reach Rome, where he opened diplomatic relations with Byzantine empire
and Alexius Komnenus.
- By bringing in Normans to fight for them, Popes Gregory and urban establish this idea of an
army but it was clear that previous popes were no strangers to battles, but now the papacy was
getting stronger and asserting itself above power of kings.
Islam c1071: Muslim expansion and the rise of Seljuk Turks.
- Following death of Prophet Muhammad, Islam split into two.
- By 1095 the two branches Sunni and Shia of Islam had control of vast swatches of land in the
near east.
Islamic society and economy-
- Led under the leadership of Abd-al-Rahman.
- Islamic cities were bigger and more civilised than europeans.
- Baghdad numbered around 800,800 population. by contrast, London and Paris may have had
around 20,000.
- Islamic towns had variety of functions: a trade centre, a scared centre, transport hub, garrison
town of admin centre.
- Islamic wealth was solely based on agrarian economy with the production of foodstuffs meaning
that land was key. Typical goods for sale were spices and cloth and incoming goods from
Europe included fur and timber.
,- Richard Cobb’s assessment on Islamic society ‘the Islamic world, by contrast (to
developing region of Europe) seemed the very model of civilisation: it was wealthy,
orderly, enlightened, imperial and protected by a merciful God.’
Islamic politics-
- Circle of Equity - summarises what it takes to be a good ruler of Islamic society.
- At top was the caliph (symbolic figurehead) and potent.
- Shi’a caliphate had emerged following conquest of northern Africa and pushed on to Egypt.
From base in Cairo they would fight fro supremacy in Sicily, Syria and Palestine - one eve of
crusades two rival Muslims did not co operate - disunity!
The rise of the Seljuk turks-
- Newer group - recent converts to Islam and Sunni.
- Dominant power in region since 11th century.
- Created power base in Iraq and Iran and consolidated expanded into central and southern Syria
by 1070.
- By 1080’s, their hold had expanded to northern Syria.
- Sulyman and Malik Shah exerted their power over wide area.
- Tutush, Malik’s brother continued family business in north until he died.
- His sons argued between themselves, which allowed Kerbogha of Mosul to become main power
in northern Syria.
- Danishmends controlled north and east Anatolia.
- Sultanate of Rum controlled south and west under Kilij Arslan.
- Struggle for control between rival powers allowed crusader progression as they crossed
Anatolia.
- Seljuk Turk authority rested solely on martial ability.
The Byzantine Empire c1071: the internal problems of the Byzantine empire; the impact of
defeat in Battle of Manzikert.
- The partition of Roman Empire in 395 created west and eastern empire.
- Following civil wars, Diocletian recognised that one person could not rule whole empire, so two
centres held sway; Rome in west and Byzantium in east.
- In 330 Byzantium had become Constantinople, in honour of Emperor Constantine.
- Byzantium dealt badly with threats of normans who were challenging the empire for control.
- By 1071, the Normans had taken Sicily and parts of southern Italy, creating a power base.
- Attempt to deal with Seljuk Turks caused greatest difficulty.
The impact of defeat in Battle of Manzikert-
- In 1071, Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes took action against the turks and rode ahead in battle
in Eastern Anatolia at fort of Manzikert.
- Greatly he underestimated the forces.
- Anatolia was lost.
- Caused a mass influx of Byzantines to Constantinople out of fear and led to lack of manpower in
fields hence reduction in tax revenue which caused economic crisis and civil war.
- Peter Frankopan ‘things could scarcely have been worse.’
Alexios Komnenos-
- Took action - Placed in charge of byzantine army to fight threat of Normans in west at Epirus.
- His troops advanced on city and support for emperor fell.
- Alexios was crowned emperor.
- He consolidated his position and quickly turned attention to Norman threat.
- By 1083 he was ready to deal with the Pechenegs and they were completely wiped out and
would pose no further threat to the empire.
- Finally to deal with Turkish threat he used a different tactic - he negotiated with Turkish chief,
Sulayman, who agreed to protect emperors Anatolian holdings.
, - Mutually beneficial agreement - Alexis benefited with ally of able general, who put down on the
Turkish raids against empire and supplied troops occasionally to fight Normans in Durazzo.
Sulyayman benefited in riches and prestige.
- Arrangement worked well until Sulayman’s death and Sultan of Baghdad's death - he needed a
new source of allies to gain control.
The council of Piacenza…
- Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI and Pope Urban II continued to vie for supremacy.
- Urban embarked on tour of Italy and France to assert authority.
- In northern Italian city, he holds a council (March 1095) attended by bishops and other church
officials.
- At this council, envoys of Alexis pleaded for help and the result was good.
Why would Urban help Alexios?
- Urban lifted the excommunication placed on Alexios by Pope Gregory VII.
- Urban was keen to heal the schism between the catholic and greek orthodox churches and
place Rome at head of a united church.
- This led to another call set for November at Claremont in France.
1095 - importance…marked culmination of several factors that led to call for crusade
- actions of pope who taught to assert papal authority and continue the reforms started by
Gregory.
- the plot/ambition of byzantine emperor who had seized control of an empire and dealt with most
threats facing him,
- The behaviour of the turks who fought to fill the power vacuum created by deaths of Sulayman
and Malik Shah.
Urban II: the reasons for the calling of the First Crusade; responding to the call for help
from the Byzantine Empire; the political and religious motives of the Papacy.
The reasons for the calling of the First Crusade…
- Tomas Asbridge - this crusade was ‘primarily proactive rather than reactive’ and was
designed ‘to meet the demands of the papacy.’
- By 1095, Urban stabilised the position in Rome and co-operated with normans of Sicily and
established a stable power base in Italy.
- He toured furnace hoping to expand power there and set up Claremont council using local
knowledge and contacts.
- Urban's desire to re-establish friendship with byzantine and Alexios as the schism of 1054
relations had been difficult.
- Urban wished to do something about the ruler of Jerusalem.
- Jerusalem was main location for Christ's patrimony and passion, centre of christian world.
- Despite christian pilgrims welcome to Jerusalem this was not enough, Urban wanted Jerusalem
under christian control.
- Urban believed that every soul should be saved - he re-directed violence inherent in medieval
society towards mutually beneficial agreement whereby he could harness knights brutality and
expertise and offer them a gateway to heaven.
The council of Clermont…Urban II call to action in 1095
- There is no surviving Papal Bull setting out Urban's exact sermon at Clermont.
- This gave the chance to inspire unruly lords and knights of western Europe to join forces to fight
against common enemy (Seljuk turks) which would also fit reform movement belief of Libertas,
freeing christian from rule of non believers.
- Robert the Monks account - stresses the fate of Jerusalem and desire to claim it back.
- Filcher of Charters account - stresses Urban's needs for settlement in east as general aim to
recruit and establish Rome as centre of faith.
