Chapter 1 The Vine
Vitis vinifera
Buds
1. Compound buds aka latent buds – primary buds and shoots
2. Prompt buds – lateral shoots (smaller and thinner) :
Function: allow the plant to carry on growing if the tip of primary shoot has been damaged or eaten
(備胎)
Always have inflorescences – second crop ( pinot noir always have ) – maybe removed during the
growing season by green harvest
1.2 Vine propagation
By 1. cutting or 2. laying
1. Cutting : most common, can use of rootstock ( prevent phylloxera) – use a shoot and plant as new
plant; can be treated in nurseries to avoid the spread of disease
2. Laying : to fill gaps between vines
1.2.1 CLONES
Clone selection : vines with particular favorable characteristics are selected by wine nurseries or grape
growers for propagation by cuttings in order to grow new vines with these favorable characteristics.
Maturation of pinot: pinot noir, meunier, pinot blanc, pinot gris
Limited supply for clones in the nursery across a region:
- Relatively uniform vines → simpler management
- Less diversity may produce wines with less complexity and balance
- More susceptible to disease
1.2.2 Mass selection
Vineyard owner take cuttings from several different vines and cultivate, and even send cuttings to the
nursery for grafting onto rootstock. After several years of monitoring and recording, the best-performing
vines are selected.
Pros : increase diversity, enhance fruit quality / yield
Cons: cost a lot of time and labour; if parent vine is infected, will pass to new vines
1.2.3 new varieties
Produced from seeds
Cross fertilization: the pollen from the stamens of the flowers of one wine is transferred to the stigmas of the
flowers of another vine and fertilization occurs.
1. Cross (two vine from same species)
Pinotage = pinot noir + cinsaut
2. Hybrid (different species)
Vidal blanc = ugni blanc + member of Seibel family
Muller-thurgau = Riesling + madeleine royale ( not as good as Riesling )
,Chapter 2 Vine cycle
Dormancy 11-3
*under 10 degree
Winter pruning take place during
Budburst 3-4
Above 10 degree
Frost and cold soil is NONO
Sandy soil in cool climent is advantageous for budbursting (warm up faster than clay rich soil)
Late pruning to avoid spring frost
Shooting and leaf grow 4-5 (3-7)
Water stress is bad NONO
Flowering and fruit set 5-7 5-6
Above 17 degree for flowering; 26-32 degree for fruit set
Don’t want : temp too low (will make uneven grape ripening) , water stress ( will reduce yield,
coulure) , no nutrient
Irregular fruit set
1. Coulure – fruit set failed for high proportion of flowers
Caused by : cold, cloudy/ hot arid with water stress
Grapes easy: grenache, CS, merlot, malbec
2. Millerandage – seedless grapes
Caused by : cold, wet, windy at fruitset
Grapes easy: chardonnay, merlot, etc
Fruit development 6-8 6-9
-need mild water stress/ need sunlight and warmth
- don’t want : too much water and nutrient (prolong stage 1, delay)
Excessive shading of grapes (less photosynthesis, suffer to ripen)
Very hot/ very cold condition (at stage 3, too cold will hinder sugar level building up, too hot will lead
to water stress so photosynthesis slow or stop, hinder sugar as well)
Stage 1 early grape growth
Hard green grapes that tartaric and malic acids accumulate/ aroma compound/ precursors develop
like methoxpyrazines (give herbaceous aroma)
Too much water : delay ripening
Water stress: speed up this stage / reduce juice and make smaller grapes
Stage 2 veraison
Green turn purple because of anthocyanins
Stage 3 ripening
Most important
Sugar and water accumulate, acid lv fall, tannin and aroma develop
Photosynthesis maximum at 18-33 degree
Mean temp above 21 degree in final month can lead to rapid loss of acidity & rise in PH, below 15
will reduce acid loss.
Respiration is slower at cool temp than warm, so cooler climent have higher acidity
Factors of the length of ripening:
1. Grape variety
2. Climatic condition
3. Management of the vine and vineyard
4. Time of harvest
, Stage 4 extra ripening
Water loss
Sugar concentrated
Dry fruit aroma
Harvest 9-10
Leave fall and dormancy 11-12
Chapter 3 growing environment
3.1 temperature & sunlight
Sunlight’s function :
1. Enhance the development of anthocyanins ( color pigment )
2. Reduce lv of methoxypyrazines
3. Reduce bitterness by Greater accumulation of tannins pre-verasion
4. Increase aroma compounds
5. Reduce acidity levels
6. Help photosynthesis so that sugar can be accumulated
Latitude : impact on day length – more intense solar radiation near equator
Altitude : 1. Sunshine is more intense at high altitude because the solar radiation travels through less
atmosphere before it reaches the site.
2 . high altitude → higher diurnal range (cool night )
Slopes
- Provide shelter from rain and wind
- Increase the angle at which solar radiation hits the earth’s surface ( heat and light intensity higher)
-
Aspect
- In cool climate better to have south east facing slopes (like burgundy and Alsace) help to ripen.
- east facing slope can dry dew morning earlier, decrease fungal disease
- More warmth
- In warm weather can limit the amount of heat and light with aspect
(in Stellenbosch, white grapes are planted on south facing slopes so grapes retain refreshing
acidity)
Proximity to water
- To adjust temperature
Large water giving cooler summers and milder winters
- Reflection of sunlight
Eg:
- finger lakes @NYC, helps to reduces the severity of winter freeze
And help to protect against frost
- Carneros @ California, next to san pablo bay, have cooling afternoon breeze
Different cases
- Willamette vally in Oregon (plant PN) (affected by cold cali current )& Margaux (CB)(affected by gulf
stream, make it warmer)
, **ENSO**
✓ El nino:
- east pacific ocean becomes warmer/ many rain / risk of hurricanes in South america & cali
- Bring dry , warmer to northerly states of Washington & Oregon
- Western side of pacific ocean in Australia, bring warmer temperature and drought condition
- Happens every 3-7 years
✓ La nina
- Reverse – cause cooler, wetter in Washington and Oregon
- Warmer drier in cali & South america
- Wetter cooler in aus
Soil
- Sandy, stoney – drain better, temperature changes faster
Cool climate vineyard – free draining soil to promote early budburst better
- Light color soil like rich in chalk (in sancerre & champagne ) – good for cool climate
- Dark color soil like volcanic origin, can absorb energy and re-radiate it when temp cooler
- Stoney soil, if sub soil is damp, very effective at absorbing heat and release at night
3.2 Water
Vine need
Cool climate : 500mm
Warm climate:750mm
Water function – transpiration
Too much water:
In ripening period : dilution of sugars ; even grape splitting → botrytis
Late spring and early summer, will prolong the ripening / too many leaves and shading
Good In spring: to support many leaves for photosynthesis
Water stress:
In ripening : early grape shrivel, unable to reach to desired ripeness level
Mid water stress is good before veraison
3.3 Nutrients
- Nitrogen
Too much: too many leaves, hinder ripening
Too little: reduce vigour and yellow leaves
- Potassium
Too much: reduce yield and poor ripening , high PH
Too little: reduce yield, low sugar , poor vine growth
- Phosphorus
Too little: poorly developed root system, reduce yield and vine growth
- Calcium
Too little: negative influence on fruit set
- Magnesium
Too little: reduce yield and poor ripening
Iron less found in high PH soil like limestone, can cause chlorosis ( leave turn yellow, photosynthesis
stop)
Vitis vinifera
Buds
1. Compound buds aka latent buds – primary buds and shoots
2. Prompt buds – lateral shoots (smaller and thinner) :
Function: allow the plant to carry on growing if the tip of primary shoot has been damaged or eaten
(備胎)
Always have inflorescences – second crop ( pinot noir always have ) – maybe removed during the
growing season by green harvest
1.2 Vine propagation
By 1. cutting or 2. laying
1. Cutting : most common, can use of rootstock ( prevent phylloxera) – use a shoot and plant as new
plant; can be treated in nurseries to avoid the spread of disease
2. Laying : to fill gaps between vines
1.2.1 CLONES
Clone selection : vines with particular favorable characteristics are selected by wine nurseries or grape
growers for propagation by cuttings in order to grow new vines with these favorable characteristics.
Maturation of pinot: pinot noir, meunier, pinot blanc, pinot gris
Limited supply for clones in the nursery across a region:
- Relatively uniform vines → simpler management
- Less diversity may produce wines with less complexity and balance
- More susceptible to disease
1.2.2 Mass selection
Vineyard owner take cuttings from several different vines and cultivate, and even send cuttings to the
nursery for grafting onto rootstock. After several years of monitoring and recording, the best-performing
vines are selected.
Pros : increase diversity, enhance fruit quality / yield
Cons: cost a lot of time and labour; if parent vine is infected, will pass to new vines
1.2.3 new varieties
Produced from seeds
Cross fertilization: the pollen from the stamens of the flowers of one wine is transferred to the stigmas of the
flowers of another vine and fertilization occurs.
1. Cross (two vine from same species)
Pinotage = pinot noir + cinsaut
2. Hybrid (different species)
Vidal blanc = ugni blanc + member of Seibel family
Muller-thurgau = Riesling + madeleine royale ( not as good as Riesling )
,Chapter 2 Vine cycle
Dormancy 11-3
*under 10 degree
Winter pruning take place during
Budburst 3-4
Above 10 degree
Frost and cold soil is NONO
Sandy soil in cool climent is advantageous for budbursting (warm up faster than clay rich soil)
Late pruning to avoid spring frost
Shooting and leaf grow 4-5 (3-7)
Water stress is bad NONO
Flowering and fruit set 5-7 5-6
Above 17 degree for flowering; 26-32 degree for fruit set
Don’t want : temp too low (will make uneven grape ripening) , water stress ( will reduce yield,
coulure) , no nutrient
Irregular fruit set
1. Coulure – fruit set failed for high proportion of flowers
Caused by : cold, cloudy/ hot arid with water stress
Grapes easy: grenache, CS, merlot, malbec
2. Millerandage – seedless grapes
Caused by : cold, wet, windy at fruitset
Grapes easy: chardonnay, merlot, etc
Fruit development 6-8 6-9
-need mild water stress/ need sunlight and warmth
- don’t want : too much water and nutrient (prolong stage 1, delay)
Excessive shading of grapes (less photosynthesis, suffer to ripen)
Very hot/ very cold condition (at stage 3, too cold will hinder sugar level building up, too hot will lead
to water stress so photosynthesis slow or stop, hinder sugar as well)
Stage 1 early grape growth
Hard green grapes that tartaric and malic acids accumulate/ aroma compound/ precursors develop
like methoxpyrazines (give herbaceous aroma)
Too much water : delay ripening
Water stress: speed up this stage / reduce juice and make smaller grapes
Stage 2 veraison
Green turn purple because of anthocyanins
Stage 3 ripening
Most important
Sugar and water accumulate, acid lv fall, tannin and aroma develop
Photosynthesis maximum at 18-33 degree
Mean temp above 21 degree in final month can lead to rapid loss of acidity & rise in PH, below 15
will reduce acid loss.
Respiration is slower at cool temp than warm, so cooler climent have higher acidity
Factors of the length of ripening:
1. Grape variety
2. Climatic condition
3. Management of the vine and vineyard
4. Time of harvest
, Stage 4 extra ripening
Water loss
Sugar concentrated
Dry fruit aroma
Harvest 9-10
Leave fall and dormancy 11-12
Chapter 3 growing environment
3.1 temperature & sunlight
Sunlight’s function :
1. Enhance the development of anthocyanins ( color pigment )
2. Reduce lv of methoxypyrazines
3. Reduce bitterness by Greater accumulation of tannins pre-verasion
4. Increase aroma compounds
5. Reduce acidity levels
6. Help photosynthesis so that sugar can be accumulated
Latitude : impact on day length – more intense solar radiation near equator
Altitude : 1. Sunshine is more intense at high altitude because the solar radiation travels through less
atmosphere before it reaches the site.
2 . high altitude → higher diurnal range (cool night )
Slopes
- Provide shelter from rain and wind
- Increase the angle at which solar radiation hits the earth’s surface ( heat and light intensity higher)
-
Aspect
- In cool climate better to have south east facing slopes (like burgundy and Alsace) help to ripen.
- east facing slope can dry dew morning earlier, decrease fungal disease
- More warmth
- In warm weather can limit the amount of heat and light with aspect
(in Stellenbosch, white grapes are planted on south facing slopes so grapes retain refreshing
acidity)
Proximity to water
- To adjust temperature
Large water giving cooler summers and milder winters
- Reflection of sunlight
Eg:
- finger lakes @NYC, helps to reduces the severity of winter freeze
And help to protect against frost
- Carneros @ California, next to san pablo bay, have cooling afternoon breeze
Different cases
- Willamette vally in Oregon (plant PN) (affected by cold cali current )& Margaux (CB)(affected by gulf
stream, make it warmer)
, **ENSO**
✓ El nino:
- east pacific ocean becomes warmer/ many rain / risk of hurricanes in South america & cali
- Bring dry , warmer to northerly states of Washington & Oregon
- Western side of pacific ocean in Australia, bring warmer temperature and drought condition
- Happens every 3-7 years
✓ La nina
- Reverse – cause cooler, wetter in Washington and Oregon
- Warmer drier in cali & South america
- Wetter cooler in aus
Soil
- Sandy, stoney – drain better, temperature changes faster
Cool climate vineyard – free draining soil to promote early budburst better
- Light color soil like rich in chalk (in sancerre & champagne ) – good for cool climate
- Dark color soil like volcanic origin, can absorb energy and re-radiate it when temp cooler
- Stoney soil, if sub soil is damp, very effective at absorbing heat and release at night
3.2 Water
Vine need
Cool climate : 500mm
Warm climate:750mm
Water function – transpiration
Too much water:
In ripening period : dilution of sugars ; even grape splitting → botrytis
Late spring and early summer, will prolong the ripening / too many leaves and shading
Good In spring: to support many leaves for photosynthesis
Water stress:
In ripening : early grape shrivel, unable to reach to desired ripeness level
Mid water stress is good before veraison
3.3 Nutrients
- Nitrogen
Too much: too many leaves, hinder ripening
Too little: reduce vigour and yellow leaves
- Potassium
Too much: reduce yield and poor ripening , high PH
Too little: reduce yield, low sugar , poor vine growth
- Phosphorus
Too little: poorly developed root system, reduce yield and vine growth
- Calcium
Too little: negative influence on fruit set
- Magnesium
Too little: reduce yield and poor ripening
Iron less found in high PH soil like limestone, can cause chlorosis ( leave turn yellow, photosynthesis
stop)
