WGU D236 pathophysiology Objective Assessment: Exam Questions and Answers Latest 2023/2024 | GRADED A+

Why would an increased anion gap be observed in diabetic ketoacidosis or lactic acidosis? - ☑️☑️The anion gap is the calculation of unmeasured anions in the blood. Lactic acid and ketones both lead to the production of unmeasured anions, which remove HCO3- (a measured anion) due to buffering of the excess H+ and therefore leads to an increase in the AG. Why is it important to maintain a homeostatic balance of glucose in the blood (ie describe the pathogenesis of diabetes)? - ☑️☑️Insulin is the hormone responsible for initiating the uptake of glucose by the cells. Cells use glucose to produce energy (ATP). WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers In a normal individual, when blood glucose increases, the pancreas is signaled to produced in insulin, which binds to insulin receptors on a cells surface and initiates the uptake of glucose. Glucose is a very reactive molecule and if left in the blood, it can start to bind to other proteins and lipids, which can lead to loss of function. AGEs are advanced glycation end products that are a result of glucose reacting with the endothelial lining, which can lead to damage in the heart and kidneys. Compare and contrast Type I and Type II Diabetes - ☑️☑️Type I diabetes is caused by lack of insulin. With out insulin signaling, glucose will not be taken into the cell and leads to high blood glucose (hyperglycemia). Type I is usually treated with insulin injections. Type II diabetes is caused by a desensitization to insulin signaling. The insulin receptors are no longer responding to insulin, which also leads to hyperglycemia. Type II is usually treated with drugs to increase the sensitization to insulin (metformin), dietary and life-style changes or insulin injections. WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers Describe some reasons for a patient needing dialysis - ☑️☑️AEIOU-acidosis. Electrolytes, Intoxication/Ingestion, overload, uremia. Patients with kidney or heart failure. A build up of phosphates, urea and magnesium are removed from the blood using a semi-permeable membrane and dialysate. AEIOU: A—acidosis; E—electrolytes principally hyperkalemia; I—ingestions or overdose of medications/drugs; O—overload of fluid causing heart failure; U—uremia leading to encephalitis/pericarditis Compare and contrast hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. What are some reasons for a patient choosing one over the other? - ☑️☑️Hemodialysis uses a machine to pump blood from the body in one tube while dialysate (made of water, electrolytes and WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers salts) is pumped in the separate tube in the opposite direction. Waste from the blood diffuses through the semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the dialysate. Peritoneal Dialysis does not use a machine, but instead injects a solution of water and glucose into the abdominal cavity. The peritoneum acts as the membrane instead of dialysis tubing. The waste products diffuse into the abdominal cavity and the waste solution is then drained from the body. Peritoneal dialysis offers continuous filtration and is less disruption to the patient's daily routines. However, it does require some training of the patient and is not recommended for individuals who are overweight or have severe kidney failure. Hemodialysis provides medical care, but 3 times a week for several hours sitting at a hospital or clinic. Individuals with acute kidney failure are recommended to use hemodialysis. How does homeostasis and maintaining optimal physiological health impact your wellbeing? - ️☑️Homeostasis acts to create a constant and stable environment in the body despite internal and external changes. Proteins and other cellular processes require optimal conditions in order to carry out their functions. WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, glucose levels, etc. can have negative effects on health, so it is vital for mechanisms that regulate homeostasis to function properly for maintaining good health Differentiate between Innate Immunity and Adaptive Immunity ? - ☑️☑️The innate immune system encompasses physical barriers and chemical and cellular defenses. Physical barriers protect the body from invasion. These include things like the skin and eyelashes. Chemical barriers are defense mechanisms that can destroy harmful agent. Examples include tears, mucous, and stomach acid. Cellular defenses of the innate immune response are non-specific. These cellular defenses identify pathogens and substances that are potentially dangerous and takes steps to neutralize or destroy them. Adaptive immunity is an organism's acquired immunity to a specific pathogen. As such, it's also referred to as acquired immunity. Adaptive immunity is not immediate, nor does it always last throughout an organism's entire lifespan, although it can. The adaptive immune response is marked by clonal expansion of T and B lymphocytes, releasing many antibody copies to neutralize or destroy their target antigen WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers What is a way that Adaptive Immunity can recruit innate immunity? - ☑️☑️The innate immune response to microbes stimulates adaptive immune responses and influences the nature of the adaptive responses. Conversely, adaptive immune responses often work by enhancing the protective mechanisms of innate immunity, making them more capable of effectively combating pathogenic microbes Why are some infections harder on children while other infections are harder on the elderly? - ️☑️Children have not been exposed to many pathogens yet, so they lack memory cells and have not built-up immunity yet. The elderly have a depleted naïve T cell population from years of battling infections, so the likelihood of getting a match is less. Describe how and why our injury response results in the signs of redness, swelling, heat, and pain? (Be sure to use chemokines, histamine, and vasodilation in your response.) - ☑️☑️An injury causes an inflammatory response which is responsible for the redness, swelling, heat and pain. Upon injury, cells on the surface begin to release chemokines which act as messengers that something has happened. WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers Mast cells are also alerted to release histamines which travel to the endothelial cells of capillaries and causes vasodilation, which is related to swelling and redness. Vasodilation also causes the capillaries to become leaky which allows for histamines, chemokines and even pathogen particles to enter the blood stream where they are met by neutrophils (non-specific) which start to adhere to the capillary wall and squeeze through the leaky holes (diapedesis or extravasation) to phagocytose pathogens and damaged cells. Dendritic cells just under the surface of skin are also activated to phagocytose foreign particles. Other B cells, T cells (specific) and the complement system also squeeze through the capillary wall to create an area of congestion. Explain dominant vs recessive genetic diseases. What is a "carrier" in recessive genetic diseases? - ☑️☑️The human genome contains 23 pairs of chromosome (22 autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes). The pairs are homologous and contain the same genes in the same order. This means that every gene has a copy, one inherited from your mother and the other from your father. Not all versions of a gene (alleles) are treated the same by the cell. Some are expressed over others. A dominant gene is a gene that is expressed, even if you only have one copy. The dominant gene will be expressed over the recessive gene, which must have two copies to be expressed. WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers In a dominant genetic disease, all it takes is one copy of the disease to have the disease. Recessive genetic diseases require that the individual gets two copies of the gene to have the disease. Someone who is a carrier for a recessive genetic disease is healthy, but contains a copy of the disease gene, potentially passing it to their offspring. Describe how to determine the probability of clinical outcomes given information about the parents (eg two heterozygous carriers of sickle cell disease). - ☑️☑️Punnett Squares can be used to determine the potential probabilities of certain traits being passed to offspring. If you know the genotypes of each parent (ie homozygous or heterozygous for the trait), you can determine the possible outcomes. Heterozygous means that the parent has one copy of each gene, homozygous means the parent has the same copy for each gene (either both dominant genes or both recessive genes). What are some of the consequences of alcohol exposure in pregnancy? - ☑️☑️ND-PAE (neurobehavioral disorder-prenatal alcohol exposure) can cause birth defects and developmental disabilities (fetal alcohol spectrum disorders-FASDs). Affects thinking and memory, causes behavioral issues and linked to trouble with everyday functioning WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers What are some of the distinctive features associated with trisomy 21, or Down's Syndrome? Why is increased maternal age a risk factor? - ☑️☑️Distinct features of Down's syndrome include intellectual disabilities and common physical features that include slanted eyes, flattened bridge of the nose and forehead, short in stature, poor muscle tone, loose joints and single palmar crease. As a woman's eggs age, they can have mistakes in meiosis potentially leading to a nondisjunction event causing trisomy 21 What is Spina Bifida? Why are relative deficiencies in Folic acid or B12 associated with Spina Bifida? - ☑️☑️Failure to close the neural tube early in gestation due to low folic acid and B-12. These vitamins help activate DNA synthesis in the developing fetus in the first 4 weeks of pregnancy, that are responsible for closing up the spinal column. Three types of spina bifida. 1) spina bifida occulta (most common, less severe) 2) Meningocele (least common) WGU D236 pathophysiology OA Exam Study Guide 2023 Questions and Answers 3) Myelomeningocele (most severe). Essential Question: How does the body's cellular responses and adaptations react to disruptions? - ️☑️The body uses the RAAS system to regulate blood volume and pressure, the immune response reacts to fight infection, the inflammatory response reacts to injury Describe how calcitonin, parathyroid hormone, and calcitriol (Vitamin D) work together to maintain normal blood calcium levels. - ☑️☑️Vitamin D: UV light stimulates formation of cholecalciferol, which is hydroxylated in the liver and the kidney into the active form of Vitamin D, calcitriol. Calcitriol stimulates absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the GI tract in the intestine and phosphate in the kidney. Calcitriol increases the calcification of osteoid