Chapter 15: Military campaigns and expansion abroad
Napoleon’s background
Napoleon was a military general who came to power in France in a coup in 1799. He established himself as
Consul (1799) and, in turn, Emperor (1804). He was forced to abdicate in 1814 but returned to power for
100 days in 1815 before being defeated at Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena. During his years in power,
he expanded France to absorb much of Europe, although by the time of his fall, most this had been lost
again. He is renowned for his military leadership, his Concordat with the papacy, his ‘Napoleonic Code’,
which laid the basis for later civil law codes, his revival of titles and honours, his administrative reform and
his support for education.
Napoleon’s early years
Napoleon was born in Corsica after the island was given to France by the Genoese. His father’s family was of
ancient Tuscan nobility, and he was brought up as one of 8 children. In 1778, at 9 years old, Napoleon gained
admission to the Collège d’Autun, where they learned to speak French. He went on to spend 5 years at the
military college of Brienne and one year (1784) on a scholarship at the Ecole Militaire in Paris.
He became second lieutenant of artillery but played no part in the early revolution, although he read Voltaire
and generally favoured reform. In 1791, he joined a Jacobin club in Valence where he was based and later that
year, the National Guard in Corsica. However, his career really took off with the coming of war and the need to
fight counter-revolution within France.
Between August and December 1793, he helped drive the British from Toulon. In recognition of his success, he
was rewarded by promotion to major in September, adjutant-general in October and brigadier-general in
December. Napoleon’s career was briefly threatened by the fall of Robespierre, who had appointed him
commandant of the artillery in the French Army of Italy in 1794. As a close friend of Robespierre’s brother,
Augustin, he was tried for conspiracy and spent a month in gaol, but he was spared to guillotine, although he
lost his position. However, he was able to take advantage of being in Paris at the time f the royalist Vendémiaire
rising (Oct 95). As a reward for saving the Republic with cannon fire on that occasion, he was made commander
of the Army of the Interior and adviser on military matters to the Directory. He was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Army of Italy in March 1796, seven days before his marriage to Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie.
Two days after the ceremony, he left for Italy
In 1795, Napoleon became involved with Josephine, widow of General Alexandre de Beauharnais, who was
guillotined during the Terror. Josephine was the mother of two children, and a woman of experience in
love affairs. She was a friend of Barras (with whom she had an affair) and was known for her beauty and
charm. He married her on 9th March 1796.
The Rhine campaign, 1796 The Italian Campaign
In the campaign in the north
along the Rhine in 1796, Jourdan Napoleon’s appointment as commander-in-chief of the French Army of Italy
and Moreau succeeded in had been given in recognition of his talent. However, as a young and
crossing the river and advancing inexperienced general, he was not expected to take on the main thrust of
into the German states. Jourdan the campaign against Austria in the spring of 1796. Hoche was given that
advanced as far as Amberg in late honour in Germany and the Directory authorised a drive by Moreau and
August while Moreau reached Jourdan north of the Alps on the Rhine. Meanwhile, Bonaparte would have
Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by the limited objective of holding back the Austrians in Italy by way of a
September. However, this was diversion. According to the propaganda which later exalted N’s
their furthest advance as Jourdan achievements in Italy, from a band of demoralised, poorly equipped, under-
was defeated by Archduke nourished and unpaid men into a courageous and capable fighting force
Charles, Duke of Teschen and which rapidly won military glory. The truth is probably less impressive –
both armies were forced to although he did arrange for the troops to be paid (in silver rather than in
retreat back across the Rhine paper money), while the soldiers’ confidence was no doubt boosted by
some rapid victories in the Montenotte campaign against Austria’s allies,
the Piedmontese, which provided plenty of opportunity for spols.
, From 1792, the French army of Italy had been confined to the mountains and coastline, with little
opportunity for glory. In 1796, it numbered around 7000 men against Austria and Piedmont-Sardinia’s
52,000 and it was poorly provided for compared to the armies in the more prestigious campaigning areas
to the north.
Montenotte Campaign: The Montenotte campaign in Piedmont-Sardinia began after the winter and lasted
from 10th April 1796 until the Armistice of Cherasco on 28th April. Following this, Piedmont-Sardinia
dropped out of the First Coalition
In April 1796, Piedmont-Sardinia withdrew from the War of the First Coalition, by the Armistice of Cherasco.
This brought a boost to the Republic as well as to Napoleon. Confirmed in Paris the following month, it gave
Savoy as well as Nice, along with some lesser territories, to France. It also provided France with supplies and
munitions and the guarantee of a free passage through Piedmont for French troops. Napoleon went on to face
the Austrians at Lodi in May 1796. Although this was essentially a fight with the Austrian rearguard, N’s
bravery well publicised. Milan was occupied and its art treasures were pillaged. Indeed, tales of N’s exploits
persuaded the Pope and the King of Naples to sign rapid treaties with the French paying indemnities
(protection money) to avoid a potential French take-over.
Armies and art treasures: The seizing of artworks (either as plunder or as a result of treaties) became
the norm as N’s armies swept across Italy, and later across Europe. N even established the first official
military division dedicated to the seizure of cultural objects, with trained personnel to record, pack and
ship art. These acquisitions filled the Louvre and also added to the personal collections of officers and N
himself. The treaty of Tolentine (June 1796) with the Pope, for example, provided innumerable artworks,
including Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and Raphael’s Transfiguration. The Pope also paid an indemnity
of 21 million livres and 800,00 livres shipping costs.
N continued his run of spectacular successes as he advanced southwards into the ‘quadrilateral’ framed by
Mantua, Peschiera, Verona and Legnago. These four fortress towns commanded the southern end of the
Austrian supply live over the Brenner Pass. He captured three of them easily but struggled to take Mantua. The
Austrians sent four successive armies against him as he besieged the city, but, showing his skill as a military
tactician, N won victories at Arcola (Nov 1796) and Rivoli (Jan 1797) and Mantua fell. By May 1797, N’s forces
were occupying Venice.
N dominated Italy and enjoyed creating a new French republic out of his conquests. Initially in May 1796 after
the Battle of Lodi, he established two client states: one to the south of the Po River, the Cispandane Republic
and one to the north, the Transpandane Republic. However, after further victories these extended and merged
to create the Cisalpine Republic of June 1797. The capital was in Milan where he created a Directory, appointed
ministers and set up a two-chamber legislature of his own nominees. He also established the Ligurian Republic
in June 1797 based around Genoa in Northwest Italy. It too had its own republican constitution and directory
(authoritarian control).
N’s next step was to advance into the Austrian Empire itself and he took his armies as far as Leoben (within
96km of Vienna). Here, in April 1797, with tired men and dwindling supplies, he dictated terms to the Austrian
commander-in-chief, the Archduke Charles.
The peace terms formed the basis for the Treaty of Campo Formio of 17 October 1797 and were negotiated by
N without seeking the prior authority of the directory. The final treaty, signed by Napoleon and Count Philip
von Cobenzl, who represented the Austrian monarchy agreed to the following.:
The final treaty signed by Napoleon and Count Philip von call benzyl who represented the Austrian monarchy
agreed to the following.
Recognition of French control over the former Austria Netherlands, renamed Belgium after its
annexation in 1795.
Austrian acceptance of the French cis Alpine and Ligurian republics in return for recognition of Austrian
influence over parts of the Venetian Republic, which was divided between the two countries.
Napoleon’s background
Napoleon was a military general who came to power in France in a coup in 1799. He established himself as
Consul (1799) and, in turn, Emperor (1804). He was forced to abdicate in 1814 but returned to power for
100 days in 1815 before being defeated at Waterloo and exiled to Saint Helena. During his years in power,
he expanded France to absorb much of Europe, although by the time of his fall, most this had been lost
again. He is renowned for his military leadership, his Concordat with the papacy, his ‘Napoleonic Code’,
which laid the basis for later civil law codes, his revival of titles and honours, his administrative reform and
his support for education.
Napoleon’s early years
Napoleon was born in Corsica after the island was given to France by the Genoese. His father’s family was of
ancient Tuscan nobility, and he was brought up as one of 8 children. In 1778, at 9 years old, Napoleon gained
admission to the Collège d’Autun, where they learned to speak French. He went on to spend 5 years at the
military college of Brienne and one year (1784) on a scholarship at the Ecole Militaire in Paris.
He became second lieutenant of artillery but played no part in the early revolution, although he read Voltaire
and generally favoured reform. In 1791, he joined a Jacobin club in Valence where he was based and later that
year, the National Guard in Corsica. However, his career really took off with the coming of war and the need to
fight counter-revolution within France.
Between August and December 1793, he helped drive the British from Toulon. In recognition of his success, he
was rewarded by promotion to major in September, adjutant-general in October and brigadier-general in
December. Napoleon’s career was briefly threatened by the fall of Robespierre, who had appointed him
commandant of the artillery in the French Army of Italy in 1794. As a close friend of Robespierre’s brother,
Augustin, he was tried for conspiracy and spent a month in gaol, but he was spared to guillotine, although he
lost his position. However, he was able to take advantage of being in Paris at the time f the royalist Vendémiaire
rising (Oct 95). As a reward for saving the Republic with cannon fire on that occasion, he was made commander
of the Army of the Interior and adviser on military matters to the Directory. He was appointed commander-in-
chief of the Army of Italy in March 1796, seven days before his marriage to Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie.
Two days after the ceremony, he left for Italy
In 1795, Napoleon became involved with Josephine, widow of General Alexandre de Beauharnais, who was
guillotined during the Terror. Josephine was the mother of two children, and a woman of experience in
love affairs. She was a friend of Barras (with whom she had an affair) and was known for her beauty and
charm. He married her on 9th March 1796.
The Rhine campaign, 1796 The Italian Campaign
In the campaign in the north
along the Rhine in 1796, Jourdan Napoleon’s appointment as commander-in-chief of the French Army of Italy
and Moreau succeeded in had been given in recognition of his talent. However, as a young and
crossing the river and advancing inexperienced general, he was not expected to take on the main thrust of
into the German states. Jourdan the campaign against Austria in the spring of 1796. Hoche was given that
advanced as far as Amberg in late honour in Germany and the Directory authorised a drive by Moreau and
August while Moreau reached Jourdan north of the Alps on the Rhine. Meanwhile, Bonaparte would have
Bavaria and the edge of Tyrol by the limited objective of holding back the Austrians in Italy by way of a
September. However, this was diversion. According to the propaganda which later exalted N’s
their furthest advance as Jourdan achievements in Italy, from a band of demoralised, poorly equipped, under-
was defeated by Archduke nourished and unpaid men into a courageous and capable fighting force
Charles, Duke of Teschen and which rapidly won military glory. The truth is probably less impressive –
both armies were forced to although he did arrange for the troops to be paid (in silver rather than in
retreat back across the Rhine paper money), while the soldiers’ confidence was no doubt boosted by
some rapid victories in the Montenotte campaign against Austria’s allies,
the Piedmontese, which provided plenty of opportunity for spols.
, From 1792, the French army of Italy had been confined to the mountains and coastline, with little
opportunity for glory. In 1796, it numbered around 7000 men against Austria and Piedmont-Sardinia’s
52,000 and it was poorly provided for compared to the armies in the more prestigious campaigning areas
to the north.
Montenotte Campaign: The Montenotte campaign in Piedmont-Sardinia began after the winter and lasted
from 10th April 1796 until the Armistice of Cherasco on 28th April. Following this, Piedmont-Sardinia
dropped out of the First Coalition
In April 1796, Piedmont-Sardinia withdrew from the War of the First Coalition, by the Armistice of Cherasco.
This brought a boost to the Republic as well as to Napoleon. Confirmed in Paris the following month, it gave
Savoy as well as Nice, along with some lesser territories, to France. It also provided France with supplies and
munitions and the guarantee of a free passage through Piedmont for French troops. Napoleon went on to face
the Austrians at Lodi in May 1796. Although this was essentially a fight with the Austrian rearguard, N’s
bravery well publicised. Milan was occupied and its art treasures were pillaged. Indeed, tales of N’s exploits
persuaded the Pope and the King of Naples to sign rapid treaties with the French paying indemnities
(protection money) to avoid a potential French take-over.
Armies and art treasures: The seizing of artworks (either as plunder or as a result of treaties) became
the norm as N’s armies swept across Italy, and later across Europe. N even established the first official
military division dedicated to the seizure of cultural objects, with trained personnel to record, pack and
ship art. These acquisitions filled the Louvre and also added to the personal collections of officers and N
himself. The treaty of Tolentine (June 1796) with the Pope, for example, provided innumerable artworks,
including Laocoon, the Apollo Belvedere, and Raphael’s Transfiguration. The Pope also paid an indemnity
of 21 million livres and 800,00 livres shipping costs.
N continued his run of spectacular successes as he advanced southwards into the ‘quadrilateral’ framed by
Mantua, Peschiera, Verona and Legnago. These four fortress towns commanded the southern end of the
Austrian supply live over the Brenner Pass. He captured three of them easily but struggled to take Mantua. The
Austrians sent four successive armies against him as he besieged the city, but, showing his skill as a military
tactician, N won victories at Arcola (Nov 1796) and Rivoli (Jan 1797) and Mantua fell. By May 1797, N’s forces
were occupying Venice.
N dominated Italy and enjoyed creating a new French republic out of his conquests. Initially in May 1796 after
the Battle of Lodi, he established two client states: one to the south of the Po River, the Cispandane Republic
and one to the north, the Transpandane Republic. However, after further victories these extended and merged
to create the Cisalpine Republic of June 1797. The capital was in Milan where he created a Directory, appointed
ministers and set up a two-chamber legislature of his own nominees. He also established the Ligurian Republic
in June 1797 based around Genoa in Northwest Italy. It too had its own republican constitution and directory
(authoritarian control).
N’s next step was to advance into the Austrian Empire itself and he took his armies as far as Leoben (within
96km of Vienna). Here, in April 1797, with tired men and dwindling supplies, he dictated terms to the Austrian
commander-in-chief, the Archduke Charles.
The peace terms formed the basis for the Treaty of Campo Formio of 17 October 1797 and were negotiated by
N without seeking the prior authority of the directory. The final treaty, signed by Napoleon and Count Philip
von Cobenzl, who represented the Austrian monarchy agreed to the following.:
The final treaty signed by Napoleon and Count Philip von call benzyl who represented the Austrian monarchy
agreed to the following.
Recognition of French control over the former Austria Netherlands, renamed Belgium after its
annexation in 1795.
Austrian acceptance of the French cis Alpine and Ligurian republics in return for recognition of Austrian
influence over parts of the Venetian Republic, which was divided between the two countries.
