CIVIL RIGHTS 1960s
KENNEDY:
His background = key to understanding his approach on CR – came from privileged
background – sheltered upbringing – did not realise African American struggle – despite this
JFK = generational contrast from Eisenhower – could be said he was a true populist as he
knew that his campaign needed African American voters – Kennedy administration realised
CR issues = major element of presidency – during election MLK arrested – JFK expressed
concern so he was released and personal intervention endorsed the CR leader hugely – Did
make sizeable contribution to CR – appointed African Americans within administration –
selected Thurgood Marshall to Second Circuit Court of Appeals – also helped their cases –
1962 when troops
Freedom Rides – 1961 – designed to turn de jure victories of Morgan vs. Virginia and
Boynton v. Virginia into de facto desegregation of interstate transport and interstate
transport facilities – sought to test these rulings – travelled from Washington DC to New
Orleans on interstate transport – organised by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) – group of
7 black and 6 white activists from CORE and SNCC set out on Greyhound and Trailways
buses on 4th May 1961 – expected to meet violent opposition – planned to use this to gain
media attention – Anniston: local police officers, who worked with KKK, refused to intervene
when white mod fire-bombed their bus – Brum: Police Chief Bull Connor refused to protect
Freedom Riders – granted most of police the day off – gave green light to local racists –
Montgomery: police and medics refused to intervene even after white crowd beat riders
with baseball bats – King, who previously did not want to be involved, gave speech at rally in
support of Freedom Riders – they achieved significant victory by forcing Attorney Robert
Kennedy to enforce desegregation of interstate bus services – significance: marked a new
high point of co-operation within the CR movement as it involved CORE, SNCC, and SCLC –
also showed that new Kennedy administration was sympathetic towards CR
Albany Movement – 1961-62 – SNCC targeted Albany – organised protests to end
segregation – local chief police Laurie Pritchett studied strategy of protestors and adopted
new approach – designed to deny them media attention – ordered local police to treat
protestors with respect in public and prevent racist violence – King arrested during
campaign and evidence that Pritchett arranged his release to prevent his incarceration
gaining publicity – Pritchett made general promises that conditions would improve which
led to little concrete action – significance: showed peaceful protests did not always bring
about change – led to divisions with CR movement – radicals in SNCC talked about using
violence as peaceful protest was not effective – King acknowledge his tactics did not work
and future campaign needed to be more focused on a specific issue – target police chiefs
who were more likely to respond with violence
James Meredith and University of Mississippi – 1962 – personal campaign took CR
movement back to education – James attempted to become first black student at
Mississippi – Ross Barnett, Governor of Mississippi refused his enrolment – Supreme Court
backed him – Kennedy put pressure on Barnett to back down and ensure he got a place –
Barnett refused to give him protection – so when he got to campus he faced violent mob of
white protestors who prevented him from enrolling – after this violence Kennedy sent
, federal troops to defend James – once again white protestors reacted violently and riot
broke out – he still graduated with degree
Brum campaign – 1963 – King had to plan next campaign carefully – so focused attention on
Brum – freedom rides showed Bull Connor would react with violence to protest – so
violence broken out and federal govt forced to act – King hoped new campaign in Brum
would provoke Connor and ensuring violence would lead to desegregation in city – also
targeted Brum as was one of the worse examples of segregation in southern states – had no
black police officers, bus drivers, firefighter, or bank workers – 10% of Brum’s black
population was registered to vote –city authorities banned NAACP showing commitment to
maintaining segregation – King set clear goals to avoid what happened in Albany – focused
on desegregation of city’s major shopping areas, administrative buildings, schools, and
public parks – and demanded end to racial desegregation in employment – progress: Connor
seemed to have changed tactics – used legal methods such as obtaining court injunction
against demonstrations in certain precincts – also released high-profile campaigners to
prevent negative media headliners – King was arrested and jailed to taking part in illegal
march – wrote his Letter from Brum in prison – about defending civil disobedience against
those who said black campaigners should work through courts – argued that he had the
right to protest on streets and break law as purely legal battle would do nothing for CR –
April first month of campaign: was very calm – SCLS changed tactics in March – James Bevel
advocated recruiting students and young people to take part in campaign – their
imprisonment would not seriously affect black families – also believed Brum authorities
would be embarrassed if their jails were full of young people – as a result on 3 rd May police
attacked demonstrators and arrest 1,300 black children – caused media frenzy – Kennedy
said he was sickened by images of police violence – Soviet media devoted 1/5 of radio time
to protest – Soviets thought violence = American corruption and Soviet superiority –
Kennedy forced to act – announced support for bill and would end segregation once and for
all – significance: 5th May negotiations began between SCLC and city authorities – Kennedy
sent Attorney General to mediate – reforms from this: CR protestors released without
charges – large department stores desegregated – racial discrimination in employment to be
ended – were significant victories but schools and most public places not affected – 4
months after Brum, KKK bombed 16th Street Baptist Church – but media coverage created
greater sympathy for movement – most important was Kennedy’s public commitment to
support CR Bill
March on Washington – 1963 reps from SCLC, SNCC, CORE, and NAACP organised march to
commemorate centenary of Emancipation Proclamation – designed to put pressure on
Kennedy and Congress to pass CR Bill – Kennedy unsure about march – feared it would
become violet and jeopardise support for CR legislation – King assured Kennedy that march
would be peaceful – significant marchers were white – show of unity – showed level if
support for CR legislation – 28th August 250,000 people marched to Lincoln Memorial to
hear speeches from leading figures in movement – significance: present movement as
united front with common goals and methods – remained peaceful with increase white
support – nature and scale attracted favourable media attention – solidified support for new
CR legislation which would give govt power to force southern states to desegregate
KENNEDY:
His background = key to understanding his approach on CR – came from privileged
background – sheltered upbringing – did not realise African American struggle – despite this
JFK = generational contrast from Eisenhower – could be said he was a true populist as he
knew that his campaign needed African American voters – Kennedy administration realised
CR issues = major element of presidency – during election MLK arrested – JFK expressed
concern so he was released and personal intervention endorsed the CR leader hugely – Did
make sizeable contribution to CR – appointed African Americans within administration –
selected Thurgood Marshall to Second Circuit Court of Appeals – also helped their cases –
1962 when troops
Freedom Rides – 1961 – designed to turn de jure victories of Morgan vs. Virginia and
Boynton v. Virginia into de facto desegregation of interstate transport and interstate
transport facilities – sought to test these rulings – travelled from Washington DC to New
Orleans on interstate transport – organised by Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) – group of
7 black and 6 white activists from CORE and SNCC set out on Greyhound and Trailways
buses on 4th May 1961 – expected to meet violent opposition – planned to use this to gain
media attention – Anniston: local police officers, who worked with KKK, refused to intervene
when white mod fire-bombed their bus – Brum: Police Chief Bull Connor refused to protect
Freedom Riders – granted most of police the day off – gave green light to local racists –
Montgomery: police and medics refused to intervene even after white crowd beat riders
with baseball bats – King, who previously did not want to be involved, gave speech at rally in
support of Freedom Riders – they achieved significant victory by forcing Attorney Robert
Kennedy to enforce desegregation of interstate bus services – significance: marked a new
high point of co-operation within the CR movement as it involved CORE, SNCC, and SCLC –
also showed that new Kennedy administration was sympathetic towards CR
Albany Movement – 1961-62 – SNCC targeted Albany – organised protests to end
segregation – local chief police Laurie Pritchett studied strategy of protestors and adopted
new approach – designed to deny them media attention – ordered local police to treat
protestors with respect in public and prevent racist violence – King arrested during
campaign and evidence that Pritchett arranged his release to prevent his incarceration
gaining publicity – Pritchett made general promises that conditions would improve which
led to little concrete action – significance: showed peaceful protests did not always bring
about change – led to divisions with CR movement – radicals in SNCC talked about using
violence as peaceful protest was not effective – King acknowledge his tactics did not work
and future campaign needed to be more focused on a specific issue – target police chiefs
who were more likely to respond with violence
James Meredith and University of Mississippi – 1962 – personal campaign took CR
movement back to education – James attempted to become first black student at
Mississippi – Ross Barnett, Governor of Mississippi refused his enrolment – Supreme Court
backed him – Kennedy put pressure on Barnett to back down and ensure he got a place –
Barnett refused to give him protection – so when he got to campus he faced violent mob of
white protestors who prevented him from enrolling – after this violence Kennedy sent
, federal troops to defend James – once again white protestors reacted violently and riot
broke out – he still graduated with degree
Brum campaign – 1963 – King had to plan next campaign carefully – so focused attention on
Brum – freedom rides showed Bull Connor would react with violence to protest – so
violence broken out and federal govt forced to act – King hoped new campaign in Brum
would provoke Connor and ensuring violence would lead to desegregation in city – also
targeted Brum as was one of the worse examples of segregation in southern states – had no
black police officers, bus drivers, firefighter, or bank workers – 10% of Brum’s black
population was registered to vote –city authorities banned NAACP showing commitment to
maintaining segregation – King set clear goals to avoid what happened in Albany – focused
on desegregation of city’s major shopping areas, administrative buildings, schools, and
public parks – and demanded end to racial desegregation in employment – progress: Connor
seemed to have changed tactics – used legal methods such as obtaining court injunction
against demonstrations in certain precincts – also released high-profile campaigners to
prevent negative media headliners – King was arrested and jailed to taking part in illegal
march – wrote his Letter from Brum in prison – about defending civil disobedience against
those who said black campaigners should work through courts – argued that he had the
right to protest on streets and break law as purely legal battle would do nothing for CR –
April first month of campaign: was very calm – SCLS changed tactics in March – James Bevel
advocated recruiting students and young people to take part in campaign – their
imprisonment would not seriously affect black families – also believed Brum authorities
would be embarrassed if their jails were full of young people – as a result on 3 rd May police
attacked demonstrators and arrest 1,300 black children – caused media frenzy – Kennedy
said he was sickened by images of police violence – Soviet media devoted 1/5 of radio time
to protest – Soviets thought violence = American corruption and Soviet superiority –
Kennedy forced to act – announced support for bill and would end segregation once and for
all – significance: 5th May negotiations began between SCLC and city authorities – Kennedy
sent Attorney General to mediate – reforms from this: CR protestors released without
charges – large department stores desegregated – racial discrimination in employment to be
ended – were significant victories but schools and most public places not affected – 4
months after Brum, KKK bombed 16th Street Baptist Church – but media coverage created
greater sympathy for movement – most important was Kennedy’s public commitment to
support CR Bill
March on Washington – 1963 reps from SCLC, SNCC, CORE, and NAACP organised march to
commemorate centenary of Emancipation Proclamation – designed to put pressure on
Kennedy and Congress to pass CR Bill – Kennedy unsure about march – feared it would
become violet and jeopardise support for CR legislation – King assured Kennedy that march
would be peaceful – significant marchers were white – show of unity – showed level if
support for CR legislation – 28th August 250,000 people marched to Lincoln Memorial to
hear speeches from leading figures in movement – significance: present movement as
united front with common goals and methods – remained peaceful with increase white
support – nature and scale attracted favourable media attention – solidified support for new
CR legislation which would give govt power to force southern states to desegregate
