P1 Task 1 Explain the reactions of a range of carbonyl and non-carbonyl
functional group compounds.
Halogenoalkanes usually contain an atom consisting of either iodine, bromine, chlorine, and
fluorine their general formula is CnH2n+1 the reason why halogenoalkanes undertake
nucleophilic substitution is because of their electronegativity which puts a limited positive
charge on the carbon atom. Each and every halogen excluding iodine is more
electronegative than carbon the positive charge makes that same carbon vulnerable to be
attacked by the nucleophile.(elimination from 2-bromopropane to give propene Author
unknown, 2022)
The reason why halogenoalkanes undergo an elimination reaction is because of the
presence of potassium hydroxide or sodium moreover the hydroxide ions in elimination
behaves as a base resulting in the removal of a hydrogen as a hydrogen ion.(elimination
from 2-bromopropane to give propene Author unknown, 2022)
Primary alcohols are alcohols that have a carbon atom of a hydroxyl group connected to a
single alkyl group such as ethanol, methanol, and propanol however the complexness of
that previously mentioned alkyl chain is unrelated to the categorization of any alcohol
thought to be primary examples of primary alcohols are ethanol and prop-1-ol.(Types of
Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Secondary alcohols are alcohols in which the carbon atom of the hydroxyl group is
connected to two alkyl groups on each side. These two alkyl groups shown will either be
different or structurally similar examples of secondary alcohols are propan-2-ol and butan-2-
ol.(Types of Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Tertiary alcohols consist of hydroxyl groups latched onto carbon atoms which are attached
to 3 alkyl groups. Physical properties of alcohols such as these are usually based on their
structure the existence of the -OH group will allow alcohols to form hydrogen bonds with
the neighbouring atoms these bonds formed are usually weak resulting in higher boiling
points of alcohols rather than alkanes an example of a tertiary alcohol is 2-methylpropan-2-
ol.(Types of Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Alcohols can also be oxidized for example primary is oxidized to form carboxylic acids and
aldehydes secondary alcohols are oxidized to form ketones and tertiary alcohols cannot be
oxidized without splitting the molecules C-C bond. (The Oxidation of Alcohols Chem Views
Magazine Chemistry Views, Author unknown, 2022)
Amines are usually categorized according to their number of carbon atoms which are
bonded straight to the nitrogen atom. Moreover a primary amine consists of one alkyl group
on the nitrogen atom a secondary amine has two and a tertiary amine has three alkyl groups
on the nitrogen atom. (15.10: Amines - Structures and Names, Author unknown, 2022)
Amines act as nucleophiles because they contain an active lone pair of electrons on the
electronegative nitrogen atom however it is electrons like these that are attached to
, positive parts of ions or other molecules.(amines as nucleophiles chemguide.com Author
unknown, 2022)
Amine reactions are as bases because they are ready to accept a hydrogen atom this is done
by donating a lone electron pair this makes them a base. (study.com acid base of amines
Author unknown, 2022)
Ketones and aldehydes usually react with he primary amines this is to form a group of
compounds which are known as imines. Moreover aldehydes and ketones react differently
to each other this is because in an aldehyde a hydrogen atom is connected to the carbon-
oxygen double bond where as in a ketone it doesn’t have a hydrogen.(Oxidation of
Aldehydes and Ketones Author unknown, 2022)
Aldehydes and ketones are reduced because hydride reacts with the carbonyl group knowns
as C=O this is to give alcohols after that the reduction of ketones will result in secondary
alcohols. In addition to this aldehydes undergo oxidation because as previously mentioned
they have a hydrogen atom and so can easily be oxidized by different types of oxidizing
agents whereas ketones don’t have a hydrogen and thee for cannot oxidize or undergo
oxidation.(addition-elimination reactions of aldehydes and ketones Author unknown,
2022)
Aldehydes are kind of more reactive in relation to nucleophilic addition reactions compared
to ketones the reason for this is because secondary carbocations that are formed by ketones
are usually stabilized the what’s called adjacent R groups. Furthermore during a process of
what’s known as an addition-elimination carbon-oxygen double bond is broken this will
result in the carbonyl group undergoing addition reactions which will then lead to the loss of
a water molecule that’s why its called condensation or addition-elimination.(addition-
elimination reactions of aldehydes and ketones Author unknown, 2022)
Carboxylic acids normally react with metals that are more reactive this is because it will
produce a salt and a hydrogen these types of reactions are identical to acids such as
hydrochloric acid but they are much slower. (carboxylic acids as acids Author unknown,
2022)
When a carboxylic acid is mixed with an alcohol and an acid catalyst it results in an ester
being formed as well as water this reaction is known as the Fischer esterification the
reaction is known to be an equilibrium because the acid is normally used as a solvent and so
is present in large excess. (chemguide.com carboxylic acids and how esters are formed
Author unknown, 2022)
The addition-elimination reaction known to form an ester is RCOOH+R’OH=RCOOR=H20
(chemguide.com carboxylic acids and how esters are formed Author unknown, 2022)
Acyl chlorides react with alcohols to form esters pyridine is used as a base this is to
neutralize the hydrochloric acid that is formed in the reaction. Acid anhydrides which are
usually formed from what’s known as the dehydration reaction of two carboxylic acid
groups they are very reactive in relation to nucleophiles in addition to this they are able to
functional group compounds.
Halogenoalkanes usually contain an atom consisting of either iodine, bromine, chlorine, and
fluorine their general formula is CnH2n+1 the reason why halogenoalkanes undertake
nucleophilic substitution is because of their electronegativity which puts a limited positive
charge on the carbon atom. Each and every halogen excluding iodine is more
electronegative than carbon the positive charge makes that same carbon vulnerable to be
attacked by the nucleophile.(elimination from 2-bromopropane to give propene Author
unknown, 2022)
The reason why halogenoalkanes undergo an elimination reaction is because of the
presence of potassium hydroxide or sodium moreover the hydroxide ions in elimination
behaves as a base resulting in the removal of a hydrogen as a hydrogen ion.(elimination
from 2-bromopropane to give propene Author unknown, 2022)
Primary alcohols are alcohols that have a carbon atom of a hydroxyl group connected to a
single alkyl group such as ethanol, methanol, and propanol however the complexness of
that previously mentioned alkyl chain is unrelated to the categorization of any alcohol
thought to be primary examples of primary alcohols are ethanol and prop-1-ol.(Types of
Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Secondary alcohols are alcohols in which the carbon atom of the hydroxyl group is
connected to two alkyl groups on each side. These two alkyl groups shown will either be
different or structurally similar examples of secondary alcohols are propan-2-ol and butan-2-
ol.(Types of Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Tertiary alcohols consist of hydroxyl groups latched onto carbon atoms which are attached
to 3 alkyl groups. Physical properties of alcohols such as these are usually based on their
structure the existence of the -OH group will allow alcohols to form hydrogen bonds with
the neighbouring atoms these bonds formed are usually weak resulting in higher boiling
points of alcohols rather than alkanes an example of a tertiary alcohol is 2-methylpropan-2-
ol.(Types of Alcohols - Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Alcohols, Author unknown, 2022)
Alcohols can also be oxidized for example primary is oxidized to form carboxylic acids and
aldehydes secondary alcohols are oxidized to form ketones and tertiary alcohols cannot be
oxidized without splitting the molecules C-C bond. (The Oxidation of Alcohols Chem Views
Magazine Chemistry Views, Author unknown, 2022)
Amines are usually categorized according to their number of carbon atoms which are
bonded straight to the nitrogen atom. Moreover a primary amine consists of one alkyl group
on the nitrogen atom a secondary amine has two and a tertiary amine has three alkyl groups
on the nitrogen atom. (15.10: Amines - Structures and Names, Author unknown, 2022)
Amines act as nucleophiles because they contain an active lone pair of electrons on the
electronegative nitrogen atom however it is electrons like these that are attached to
, positive parts of ions or other molecules.(amines as nucleophiles chemguide.com Author
unknown, 2022)
Amine reactions are as bases because they are ready to accept a hydrogen atom this is done
by donating a lone electron pair this makes them a base. (study.com acid base of amines
Author unknown, 2022)
Ketones and aldehydes usually react with he primary amines this is to form a group of
compounds which are known as imines. Moreover aldehydes and ketones react differently
to each other this is because in an aldehyde a hydrogen atom is connected to the carbon-
oxygen double bond where as in a ketone it doesn’t have a hydrogen.(Oxidation of
Aldehydes and Ketones Author unknown, 2022)
Aldehydes and ketones are reduced because hydride reacts with the carbonyl group knowns
as C=O this is to give alcohols after that the reduction of ketones will result in secondary
alcohols. In addition to this aldehydes undergo oxidation because as previously mentioned
they have a hydrogen atom and so can easily be oxidized by different types of oxidizing
agents whereas ketones don’t have a hydrogen and thee for cannot oxidize or undergo
oxidation.(addition-elimination reactions of aldehydes and ketones Author unknown,
2022)
Aldehydes are kind of more reactive in relation to nucleophilic addition reactions compared
to ketones the reason for this is because secondary carbocations that are formed by ketones
are usually stabilized the what’s called adjacent R groups. Furthermore during a process of
what’s known as an addition-elimination carbon-oxygen double bond is broken this will
result in the carbonyl group undergoing addition reactions which will then lead to the loss of
a water molecule that’s why its called condensation or addition-elimination.(addition-
elimination reactions of aldehydes and ketones Author unknown, 2022)
Carboxylic acids normally react with metals that are more reactive this is because it will
produce a salt and a hydrogen these types of reactions are identical to acids such as
hydrochloric acid but they are much slower. (carboxylic acids as acids Author unknown,
2022)
When a carboxylic acid is mixed with an alcohol and an acid catalyst it results in an ester
being formed as well as water this reaction is known as the Fischer esterification the
reaction is known to be an equilibrium because the acid is normally used as a solvent and so
is present in large excess. (chemguide.com carboxylic acids and how esters are formed
Author unknown, 2022)
The addition-elimination reaction known to form an ester is RCOOH+R’OH=RCOOR=H20
(chemguide.com carboxylic acids and how esters are formed Author unknown, 2022)
Acyl chlorides react with alcohols to form esters pyridine is used as a base this is to
neutralize the hydrochloric acid that is formed in the reaction. Acid anhydrides which are
usually formed from what’s known as the dehydration reaction of two carboxylic acid
groups they are very reactive in relation to nucleophiles in addition to this they are able to
