Outline and evaluate research into leading questions as a factor affecting the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony. [16 marks]
[AO1]
Misleading information- incorrect information is given to an eyewitness usually after the event. It
can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses
and/or other people.
Leading question- a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.
Key Research 1:
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
- Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a classic experiment to investigate the effect of leading
questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
-To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect recall in situations where
participants were asked to estimate speed.
- Loftus and Palmer’s research aimed to examine the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony (EWT)
– 45 American students, divided into 5 groups of 9
– Each group of participants watched a video of a car accident and were then asked a specific
question about the speed of the car.
Leading question – “About how fast were the cars going when they (…) each other?”
Loftus and Palmer manipulated the verb used in the leading question e.g., “smashed”, “collided”,
“bumped”, “contacted” and “hit”
The IV- verbs
The DV-speed
Speed was operationalised at mph
The Findings- They found that the estimated speed was affected by the verb used.
The evidence: participants who were given the verb “smashed” reported an average speed of 40.5
mph whilst participants who were given the word “contacted” reported an average speed of 31.8
mph. Difference of 8.7mph.
The conclusion- The findings show that the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading
questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgement.
This conclusion from Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) findings emphasises that there is response bias
underpinning the effect of leading questions.
Key Research 2:
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
- Explained this response bias by conducting a second study.
- 150 American students, divided into 3 groups
- Watch a 1-minute video depicting a car accident
- Given questionnaire to complete
- One group asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
- Another group asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
- Final control group was not asked about the speed of the vehicles.
- Participants returned and were asked a series of questions about the accident
- Critical question – “Did you see any broken glass?”
- 32% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb “smashed”, reported
seeing broken glass.
eyewitness testimony. [16 marks]
[AO1]
Misleading information- incorrect information is given to an eyewitness usually after the event. It
can take many forms, such as leading questions and post-event discussion between co-witnesses
and/or other people.
Leading question- a question which, because of the way it is phrased, suggests a certain answer.
Key Research 1:
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
- Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a classic experiment to investigate the effect of leading
questions on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
-To investigate whether the use of leading questions would affect recall in situations where
participants were asked to estimate speed.
- Loftus and Palmer’s research aimed to examine the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of
eyewitness testimony (EWT)
– 45 American students, divided into 5 groups of 9
– Each group of participants watched a video of a car accident and were then asked a specific
question about the speed of the car.
Leading question – “About how fast were the cars going when they (…) each other?”
Loftus and Palmer manipulated the verb used in the leading question e.g., “smashed”, “collided”,
“bumped”, “contacted” and “hit”
The IV- verbs
The DV-speed
Speed was operationalised at mph
The Findings- They found that the estimated speed was affected by the verb used.
The evidence: participants who were given the verb “smashed” reported an average speed of 40.5
mph whilst participants who were given the word “contacted” reported an average speed of 31.8
mph. Difference of 8.7mph.
The conclusion- The findings show that the accuracy of eyewitness testimony is affected by leading
questions and that a single word in a question can significantly affect the accuracy of our judgement.
This conclusion from Loftus and Palmer’s (1974) findings emphasises that there is response bias
underpinning the effect of leading questions.
Key Research 2:
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
- Explained this response bias by conducting a second study.
- 150 American students, divided into 3 groups
- Watch a 1-minute video depicting a car accident
- Given questionnaire to complete
- One group asked, “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
- Another group asked, “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
- Final control group was not asked about the speed of the vehicles.
- Participants returned and were asked a series of questions about the accident
- Critical question – “Did you see any broken glass?”
- 32% of the participants who were previously questioned using the verb “smashed”, reported
seeing broken glass.
