, Table of Contents
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Classical Conditioning ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Extinction ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Operant Conditioning ........................................................................................................................................ 4
The natural elements of operant conditioning ............................................................................................. 4
The cognitive elements of operant conditioning .......................................................................................... 5
Acquisition of Operant Responses ................................................................................................................ 5
Research Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Psychology: An Empirical Science ...................................................................................................................... 6
Linking Variables ................................................................................................................................................ 6
The Shape of Variables ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Describing Distributions ................................................................................................................................ 7
Sampling and Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................. 7
Memory ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Remembering..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Forgetting ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Metamemory ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Thinking and Reasoning ............................................................................................................................... 12
Judging, Valuing and Deciding ......................................................................................................................... 12
Vocabulary .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Problem Solving ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Transforming Information ............................................................................................................................... 14
Belief Bias .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Thinking ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Reasoning ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
Brain & Behaviour........................................................................................................................................ 15
Neurons: The Origin of Behaviour .................................................................................................................... 15
The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons .......................................................................................................... 16
Chemical Signalling ..................................................................................................................................... 16
The Organization of the Nervous System......................................................................................................... 17
Evolution and Development of Nervous Systems ............................................................................................. 19
Investigating the Brain..................................................................................................................................... 19
Eating ............................................................................................................................................................... 20
Sleeping ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
Dreaming ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Feeling Good .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 1
, Individual Differences .................................................................................................................................. 22
Intelligence ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
Measuring Intelligence................................................................................................................................ 22
The Nature & Origins of Intelligence........................................................................................................... 23
Cognitive Bases ........................................................................................................................................... 24
The Future of Intelligence ........................................................................................................................... 25
Personality ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
Trait Approach ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Psychodynamic Approach ........................................................................................................................... 29
Humanistic-Existential Approach ................................................................................................................ 31
Sociocultural Approach ............................................................................................................................... 31
The Self ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Child Development ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Nature vs Nurture ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Prenatal Development ................................................................................................................................ 33
Postnatal Life .............................................................................................................................................. 34
Piaget’s vs Vygotsky......................................................................................................................................... 35
Social Development ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Attachment ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Self-Recognition and Control ...................................................................................................................... 38
Moral Development ......................................................................................................................................... 39
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 2
, Learning
Pavlov's (1902) experiment
Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate when presented with a tuning fork through conditioning. First
presented only food, then tuning fork and food, until the dog responded to just the fork alone.
Watson – Little Albert
Watson and Rayner performed a controversial study on 'Little Albert'. While Albert was watching
Payner, Watson struck a large steel bar with a hammer, producing a loud noise. The US (loud sound)
was paired with a CS (rat) such that the CS was sufficient to produce the CR (fear).
What does the 'Law of Effect' intend?
The principle that behaviours that are followed by a satisfying situation tend to be repeated and
those that produce an unpleasant state of affairs are less likely to be repeated
Habituation - A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus, results in a
gradual reduction in responding
Shaping - Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired
behaviour
Classical Conditioning
When a stimulus evokes a response because of being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a
response
What are the 4 basic elements of classical conditioning?
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring
reaction in an organism
• Unconditioned Response (UR) - A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - A stimulus that at first does not produce the response that is
eventually conditioned by pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR) - A reaction to a conditioned stimulus produces by pairing it with
an unconditioned stimulus
What would we expect during the acquisition phase?
The phase of classical conditioning when the CS (Conditioned Stimulus) and the US (Unconditioned
Stimulus) are presented together. Acquisition occurs during the initial phase when there is a gradual
increase in learning (gradually increased amount of salivation over several trials)
Acquisition - The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
When should the CS be presented in connection with the US?
The CS should be presented shortly before the US (depending on type of stimulus)
Second-Order Conditioning - Conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to
produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used at the CS
Extinction
Why does extinction occur?
When the CS is presented without the US, it leads the behaviour to decline abruptly and continues
to drop until the CR is no longer observed (does not mean its forgotten).
Extinction: The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is no longer
followed by the US
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 3
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................................... 1
Learning ......................................................................................................................................................... 3
Classical Conditioning ........................................................................................................................................ 3
Extinction ...................................................................................................................................................... 3
Operant Conditioning ........................................................................................................................................ 4
The natural elements of operant conditioning ............................................................................................. 4
The cognitive elements of operant conditioning .......................................................................................... 5
Acquisition of Operant Responses ................................................................................................................ 5
Research Methods ......................................................................................................................................... 6
Psychology: An Empirical Science ...................................................................................................................... 6
Linking Variables ................................................................................................................................................ 6
The Shape of Variables ...................................................................................................................................... 6
Describing Distributions ................................................................................................................................ 7
Sampling and Hypothesis .............................................................................................................................. 7
Memory ......................................................................................................................................................... 8
Remembering..................................................................................................................................................... 8
Forgetting ........................................................................................................................................................ 10
Metamemory ................................................................................................................................................... 11
Thinking and Reasoning ............................................................................................................................... 12
Judging, Valuing and Deciding ......................................................................................................................... 12
Vocabulary .................................................................................................................................................. 13
Problem Solving ............................................................................................................................................... 13
Transforming Information ............................................................................................................................... 14
Belief Bias .................................................................................................................................................... 14
Thinking ........................................................................................................................................................... 14
Reasoning ........................................................................................................................................................ 14
Brain & Behaviour........................................................................................................................................ 15
Neurons: The Origin of Behaviour .................................................................................................................... 15
The Electrochemical Actions of Neurons .......................................................................................................... 16
Chemical Signalling ..................................................................................................................................... 16
The Organization of the Nervous System......................................................................................................... 17
Evolution and Development of Nervous Systems ............................................................................................. 19
Investigating the Brain..................................................................................................................................... 19
Eating ............................................................................................................................................................... 20
Sleeping ........................................................................................................................................................... 21
Dreaming ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Feeling Good .................................................................................................................................................... 22
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 1
, Individual Differences .................................................................................................................................. 22
Intelligence ...................................................................................................................................................... 22
Measuring Intelligence................................................................................................................................ 22
The Nature & Origins of Intelligence........................................................................................................... 23
Cognitive Bases ........................................................................................................................................... 24
The Future of Intelligence ........................................................................................................................... 25
Personality ....................................................................................................................................................... 25
Trait Approach ............................................................................................................................................ 26
Psychodynamic Approach ........................................................................................................................... 29
Humanistic-Existential Approach ................................................................................................................ 31
Sociocultural Approach ............................................................................................................................... 31
The Self ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
Child Development ...................................................................................................................................... 33
Nature vs Nurture ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Prenatal Development ................................................................................................................................ 33
Postnatal Life .............................................................................................................................................. 34
Piaget’s vs Vygotsky......................................................................................................................................... 35
Social Development ......................................................................................................................................... 36
Attachment ................................................................................................................................................. 37
Self-Recognition and Control ...................................................................................................................... 38
Moral Development ......................................................................................................................................... 39
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 2
, Learning
Pavlov's (1902) experiment
Pavlov conditioned a dog to salivate when presented with a tuning fork through conditioning. First
presented only food, then tuning fork and food, until the dog responded to just the fork alone.
Watson – Little Albert
Watson and Rayner performed a controversial study on 'Little Albert'. While Albert was watching
Payner, Watson struck a large steel bar with a hammer, producing a loud noise. The US (loud sound)
was paired with a CS (rat) such that the CS was sufficient to produce the CR (fear).
What does the 'Law of Effect' intend?
The principle that behaviours that are followed by a satisfying situation tend to be repeated and
those that produce an unpleasant state of affairs are less likely to be repeated
Habituation - A general process in which repeated or prolonged exposure to a stimulus, results in a
gradual reduction in responding
Shaping - Learning that results from the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired
behaviour
Classical Conditioning
When a stimulus evokes a response because of being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a
response
What are the 4 basic elements of classical conditioning?
• Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - Something that reliably produces a naturally occurring
reaction in an organism
• Unconditioned Response (UR) - A reflexive reaction that is reliably elicited by an
unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - A stimulus that at first does not produce the response that is
eventually conditioned by pairing with an unconditioned stimulus
• Conditioned Response (CR) - A reaction to a conditioned stimulus produces by pairing it with
an unconditioned stimulus
What would we expect during the acquisition phase?
The phase of classical conditioning when the CS (Conditioned Stimulus) and the US (Unconditioned
Stimulus) are presented together. Acquisition occurs during the initial phase when there is a gradual
increase in learning (gradually increased amount of salivation over several trials)
Acquisition - The phase of classical conditioning when the CS and the US are presented together
When should the CS be presented in connection with the US?
The CS should be presented shortly before the US (depending on type of stimulus)
Second-Order Conditioning - Conditioning where the US is a stimulus that acquired its ability to
produce learning from an earlier procedure in which it was used at the CS
Extinction
Why does extinction occur?
When the CS is presented without the US, it leads the behaviour to decline abruptly and continues
to drop until the CR is no longer observed (does not mean its forgotten).
Extinction: The gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is no longer
followed by the US
Bea Lume Nunes | PSYU911/01 ‘20-‘21 3
