Hazardous environment
Volcanoes
Name/ Location Eyjafjallajökull. South Iceland, beneath a glacier (2010) - super volcano
Eruption type Explosive (phreatomagmatic/Plinian)
Magma type Andestic-rhyolitic (silica-rich)
Features Interaction of magma and glacial meltwater caused violent steam explosions.
9km high ash plume, fine ash drifted across Europe
VEI 4
Primary Impacts Airspace over Europe closed for 6 days (10 million travellers
affected)
Local flash flooding due to glacial melt caused Route 1 (Iceland’s
ring road) to be destroyed along with several bridges
Boost to Icelandic tourism due to global attention
No deaths, but widespread flooding (damage to infrastructure
Secondary Boost to Icelandic tourism due to global attention
impacts Some farmland remained infertile for months due thick ash
deposits, livestock losses reduced local income
Anxiety and displacement among local residents from repeated
evacuations and farm losses
900 people evacuated from nearby communities due to flooding
Airlines lost $1.7 billion
Short term London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre closed 100,000 flights for
responses safety over Europe
Residents were given dust masks and goggles to protect from
ash inhalation and eye irritation
Long term Icelandic and international volcanologists deployed
responses seismometers, gas sensors and satellite monitoring to track ash
and eruption dynamics
Creation of new ash concentration threshold and improved
VAAC protocols to avoid total airspace shutdown in future
Regular volcano drills, public information campaigns and school
education programs
Name/ Cumbre Vieja, La Palma, Canary Islands (2021)
location
Eruption type Effusive (basaltic) with occasional Strombolian
Magma type Basaltic - low viscosity
Features 85 days of eruption = longest on La Palma
Lava fountains and flows destroyed more than 1,000 homes and banana
plantations
, Lava reached the sea, forming new land
VEI 3
Impacts Around 7,000 people evacuated, no direct deaths
Economic loss around $900 million
Demonstrated how effusive eruptions can still be highly destructive
Short term Initial $10.5 in air from Spanish GOV
responses Medical support for respiratory problems e.g masks
Long term Rebuilt and fixed 1,500 homes
responses La Palma economy is agricultural and lost 15% annual production
so a land exchange plan was put in place which mean land that has
been covered by lava could be exchanged for publicly owned land
to then allow agriculture to be relocated
Name/ location Campi Flegrei, near Naples, southern Italy
Type Super volcano - vast Caldrea (around 13km wide) (capable of producing an
eruption with a VEI of 8 or higher
Eruption type Explosive (phyolitic - Plinian)
Magma type Rhyolitic (high silica, viscous)
Features Over 24 eruptive centres, last eruption in 1538
History includes massive eruption (one of Europe’s largest)
VEI 7
Impacts Naples (3m people) lies within risk zone
(potential) Could trigger catastrophic global impacts if a large eruption
occurred
Landslides
Name Mam Tor, UK
Info Largest landslip in Europe
Mountain composed of alternating permeable sandstones and
impermeable shales which dip slightly towards the valley
Shale can be crumbled easily by a persons hand = little strength
Their upper layer becomes wet and slippery and provide a lubricant layer
for the rock above to slip over
3000 years ago, landslip occur leaving 70m high slip face
The average flow movement of the debris at the toe is 250mm over year,
but faster in wet years e.g has moved quicker than 500mm per year. This
can cause buildings, farms below in danger
Name Vargas, Venezuela - debris flow and landslides
Volcanoes
Name/ Location Eyjafjallajökull. South Iceland, beneath a glacier (2010) - super volcano
Eruption type Explosive (phreatomagmatic/Plinian)
Magma type Andestic-rhyolitic (silica-rich)
Features Interaction of magma and glacial meltwater caused violent steam explosions.
9km high ash plume, fine ash drifted across Europe
VEI 4
Primary Impacts Airspace over Europe closed for 6 days (10 million travellers
affected)
Local flash flooding due to glacial melt caused Route 1 (Iceland’s
ring road) to be destroyed along with several bridges
Boost to Icelandic tourism due to global attention
No deaths, but widespread flooding (damage to infrastructure
Secondary Boost to Icelandic tourism due to global attention
impacts Some farmland remained infertile for months due thick ash
deposits, livestock losses reduced local income
Anxiety and displacement among local residents from repeated
evacuations and farm losses
900 people evacuated from nearby communities due to flooding
Airlines lost $1.7 billion
Short term London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre closed 100,000 flights for
responses safety over Europe
Residents were given dust masks and goggles to protect from
ash inhalation and eye irritation
Long term Icelandic and international volcanologists deployed
responses seismometers, gas sensors and satellite monitoring to track ash
and eruption dynamics
Creation of new ash concentration threshold and improved
VAAC protocols to avoid total airspace shutdown in future
Regular volcano drills, public information campaigns and school
education programs
Name/ Cumbre Vieja, La Palma, Canary Islands (2021)
location
Eruption type Effusive (basaltic) with occasional Strombolian
Magma type Basaltic - low viscosity
Features 85 days of eruption = longest on La Palma
Lava fountains and flows destroyed more than 1,000 homes and banana
plantations
, Lava reached the sea, forming new land
VEI 3
Impacts Around 7,000 people evacuated, no direct deaths
Economic loss around $900 million
Demonstrated how effusive eruptions can still be highly destructive
Short term Initial $10.5 in air from Spanish GOV
responses Medical support for respiratory problems e.g masks
Long term Rebuilt and fixed 1,500 homes
responses La Palma economy is agricultural and lost 15% annual production
so a land exchange plan was put in place which mean land that has
been covered by lava could be exchanged for publicly owned land
to then allow agriculture to be relocated
Name/ location Campi Flegrei, near Naples, southern Italy
Type Super volcano - vast Caldrea (around 13km wide) (capable of producing an
eruption with a VEI of 8 or higher
Eruption type Explosive (phyolitic - Plinian)
Magma type Rhyolitic (high silica, viscous)
Features Over 24 eruptive centres, last eruption in 1538
History includes massive eruption (one of Europe’s largest)
VEI 7
Impacts Naples (3m people) lies within risk zone
(potential) Could trigger catastrophic global impacts if a large eruption
occurred
Landslides
Name Mam Tor, UK
Info Largest landslip in Europe
Mountain composed of alternating permeable sandstones and
impermeable shales which dip slightly towards the valley
Shale can be crumbled easily by a persons hand = little strength
Their upper layer becomes wet and slippery and provide a lubricant layer
for the rock above to slip over
3000 years ago, landslip occur leaving 70m high slip face
The average flow movement of the debris at the toe is 250mm over year,
but faster in wet years e.g has moved quicker than 500mm per year. This
can cause buildings, farms below in danger
Name Vargas, Venezuela - debris flow and landslides
