ENGLISH – METHODOLOGY
INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Definition of Language
Language as a word is based on the Latin word lingua (tongue) meaning speech. However, in
general terms it is defined as a system of arbitrary symbols used by human beings or animals for
communication. Human language appears in two forms: written and spoken. As such, language
used by human beings (spoken language / speech) is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used by human beings for communication.
Note that animals, too, communicate but they do not use spoken language (speech). They may
use tail movements, feather movements, ear movements or even vocal sounds. As such, they may
communicate to express anger, fear, warning or desire to do something like mating. The vocal
sounds produced by animals, however, are described differently: barking for dogs, mooing for
cows, bleating for sheep, braying for donkey, chattering for monkeys, neighing for horses etc.
Special Features / Characteristics of Human Language (Speech)
a. Arbitrariness
It is abstract .i.e. there is no one on one relationship between form and meaning (thing
being referred to). For example, something as big as a whale can be referred to by such a
short word yet a small thing like a razorblade has such a long word. Similarly, a four-
legged domestic canine can be referred to differently by different languages .i.e.:
ENGLISH KISWAHILI LUHYA MERU TAITA KIKUYU
Dog Mbwa Imbwa Ku`ru`
b. Duality of patterning:
The discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new
forms. For example: /a/, /p/, /e/, /t/, /n/ can be re-organized severally to form pan, pet, ten,
tan etc. The words are also re-organized to form phrases, and phrases combined to form
sentences.
c. Displacement
It can be used to talk about things that are not within the immediate context of the
speaker .i.e. both the past and the future can be talked about in the present. People can
also talk of things that are physically far away, for instance other countries. Similarly,
they can talk of things they have never seen like eternal fire in hell.
d. Productivity
One is able to use language to create utterances never heard before.
e. Cultural transmission
Although human beings are born with ability to communicate, they acquire language
from other speakers within their reach.
f. Dynamism
The transmission of language from one cultural generation to another keeps on changing
.i.e. old words and expressions go out of use or change their meaning, while new words
are introduced.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 1
, g. Semanticity
Specific signals can be matched with specific meaning. For example: The English word,
‘come’ and t/he Luhya word, ‘itsa’ both mean that the listener moves from where she or
he is and go where the speaker is. The speakers of both languages will associate the
signal with the meaning intended.
h. Use of varied media
A similar message can be expressed in many different forms. It can either expressed in
speech or written. It can be encoded in electronic media and transmitted over long
distances. It can also be stored and retrieved when required.
Functions / Uses of Human Language
a. Establish relationships / Interaction
People use language to establish relationship with one another. It may be used to reflect
and convey various degrees of friendship, hatred, respect, or politeness among members
of a society. As such, people may use proper nouns to denote their family or occupation.
b. Expressing feelings, attitudes, and opinions.
It is used to express individual’s or group’s view point.
c. Conveying information, idea and experience
People use language to pass information, idea and experience from an individual to
another or an individual to society. For instance: When a senior person in the country
dies, written or spoken language is used to announce the death. It can also be used to talk
about the past hence informing us about our history.
d. Instructing, requesting and directing
Here, language is used to regulate people’s action and behavior. For example: A teacher
instructing students to sit down or how to do an exercise. A person may use language to
request for water when he or she is thirsty.
e. Social conventions
When language is used in this context, it cements relationships. Such social conventions
include: greetings, sympathy, congratulations, sympathy, reprimands and condolences.
f. Creative expressions.
Writers and actors use language creatively to express themselves in drama, folklores,
novels, debates, poetry, narratives and some songs to convey message in an aesthetic
manner.
Varieties of Language
Accent
It deals with differences in pronunciation. David Cystle, “An accent is a particular way of
speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker’s background, for example, his
region or country.” We can tell the native speakers of a language by considering the accent, for
example, we can detect French speakers when they are speaking English. However, differences
in accent doesn’t necessarily cause breakdown in communication though it might alter the
meaning intended.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 2
,Dialect
It refers to a variety of language with distinct vocabulary, grammar, lexical items and even
pronunciation (accent). The term connotes with low status form of a language and its unwritten
forms. A dialect is therefore smaller in size and prestige than a language. Based on this, we can
therefore define language as a collection of mutually intelligible dialects.
Types of Dialects
a. Regional Dialect
This results from geographical separations, for instance, rivers, lakes, mountains or
forests.
b. Social Dialect / Sociolect
This may be determined by class, profession, religion, gender, residence, level of income
etc. For instance, in India, each caste speaks its variety of Hindu .i.e. Brahmin or Sutra
c. Idiolect
This is a personal mannerism in the use of language .i.e. in grammar, vocabulary etc.
Register
This is language according to use. It may be defined by field of discourse (occupation, subject
matter, profession), tenor of discourse and mode of discourse (medium). It is therefore a form of
language appropriate to a particular area of human experience such as the legal profession,
religion, politics, medicine, sport commentators, parliament, lecture etc. Register therefore is a
variety of language whose choice is governed by situation, context or setting .i.e. a situational
restricted use of language.
Variables which Govern the Choice of Register / Elements of Register
a. Social differences
Where there is a marked social class system, like it used to be in the U.K. where we had
the upper class, bourgeoisie and the lower class, there are likely to be differences in the
use of language. This may also be linked to the speaker’s level of education.
b. Tenor of Discourse .i.e. the relationship between the speaker and the listener.
The use of language varies a great deal based on the level of relationship between the
speaker and the listener. For instance, the way friends will talk to each other is different
from the way strangers will talk to each other.
c. Mode of discourse / Medium of communication
This is the degree of formality .i.e. the same person can use language with more or less
care depending on the situation he is in. For instance: Conducting an interview (very
formal) and same person chatting at home (very informal). It therefore determines
whether the language will be standard or non-standard or the variation between formal
and informal language. This variation also extends to the written language .i.e. in
personal and official letters. Also, spoken language varies greatly with written language.
Written language is done with a lot of care than spoken language .i.e. medium of
communication.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 3
, d. Field of Discourse / Occupational differences
The use of special forms or particularly vocabulary depending on what is being talked
about or in specific fields such as computer programming, science, law or medicine can
make the language difficult for the layman to understand. This is what gives rise to the so
called jargon.
Diglossia
Ferguson (1959), defines it as, ‘A situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side
throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.” One of the varieties is
considered ‘formal’ and is held to be high (H) and is used in such functions as sermons, lectures,
political speeches, news broadcast, newspapers etc. It is usually accorded prestige and learnt in
schools. The other variety is said to be low (L) and it is used in ordinary conversation, for
instance, friends or some local radio stations. It is only acquired at home in an informal set up,
for instance, from parents or peers. Diglossia is also defined as two languages which are assigned
distinct functions, for instance, in India where Hindu is high (H) while Khalapun is lower (L).
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS
We have four basic language skills that are taught and developed in the following order in
English:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
The skills are further categorized into two as:
a. Receptive skill (the process of taking in information) .i.e. listening and reading.
b. Productive skill (the process of giving out information) .i.e. writing and speaking.
In language development, the receptive skills develop faster than the productive skills. Normally,
children are able to understand more than they can speak, and they read better than they can
write. The four skills should therefore be taught in a sequential and flexible manner in the
process of teaching.
MOTHER TONGUE (MT OR L1) ACQUISITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Mother Tongue (MT or L1) Acquisition
Mother tongue is the first native language that a child learns before formal schooling. Basically,
L1 equips the child with oral skills (listening and speaking).
Features of Mother Tongue (MT or L1) Acquisition / Factors that Contribute to Successful
Learning of Mother Tongue
1. Prolonged and intensive exposure to the language
Even before the child starts speaking, the infant is spoken to by the parents, relatives,
house-help and any other people around. Gradually, the infant starts to associate those
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 4
INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Definition of Language
Language as a word is based on the Latin word lingua (tongue) meaning speech. However, in
general terms it is defined as a system of arbitrary symbols used by human beings or animals for
communication. Human language appears in two forms: written and spoken. As such, language
used by human beings (spoken language / speech) is defined as a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used by human beings for communication.
Note that animals, too, communicate but they do not use spoken language (speech). They may
use tail movements, feather movements, ear movements or even vocal sounds. As such, they may
communicate to express anger, fear, warning or desire to do something like mating. The vocal
sounds produced by animals, however, are described differently: barking for dogs, mooing for
cows, bleating for sheep, braying for donkey, chattering for monkeys, neighing for horses etc.
Special Features / Characteristics of Human Language (Speech)
a. Arbitrariness
It is abstract .i.e. there is no one on one relationship between form and meaning (thing
being referred to). For example, something as big as a whale can be referred to by such a
short word yet a small thing like a razorblade has such a long word. Similarly, a four-
legged domestic canine can be referred to differently by different languages .i.e.:
ENGLISH KISWAHILI LUHYA MERU TAITA KIKUYU
Dog Mbwa Imbwa Ku`ru`
b. Duality of patterning:
The discrete parts of a language can be recombined in a systematic way to create new
forms. For example: /a/, /p/, /e/, /t/, /n/ can be re-organized severally to form pan, pet, ten,
tan etc. The words are also re-organized to form phrases, and phrases combined to form
sentences.
c. Displacement
It can be used to talk about things that are not within the immediate context of the
speaker .i.e. both the past and the future can be talked about in the present. People can
also talk of things that are physically far away, for instance other countries. Similarly,
they can talk of things they have never seen like eternal fire in hell.
d. Productivity
One is able to use language to create utterances never heard before.
e. Cultural transmission
Although human beings are born with ability to communicate, they acquire language
from other speakers within their reach.
f. Dynamism
The transmission of language from one cultural generation to another keeps on changing
.i.e. old words and expressions go out of use or change their meaning, while new words
are introduced.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 1
, g. Semanticity
Specific signals can be matched with specific meaning. For example: The English word,
‘come’ and t/he Luhya word, ‘itsa’ both mean that the listener moves from where she or
he is and go where the speaker is. The speakers of both languages will associate the
signal with the meaning intended.
h. Use of varied media
A similar message can be expressed in many different forms. It can either expressed in
speech or written. It can be encoded in electronic media and transmitted over long
distances. It can also be stored and retrieved when required.
Functions / Uses of Human Language
a. Establish relationships / Interaction
People use language to establish relationship with one another. It may be used to reflect
and convey various degrees of friendship, hatred, respect, or politeness among members
of a society. As such, people may use proper nouns to denote their family or occupation.
b. Expressing feelings, attitudes, and opinions.
It is used to express individual’s or group’s view point.
c. Conveying information, idea and experience
People use language to pass information, idea and experience from an individual to
another or an individual to society. For instance: When a senior person in the country
dies, written or spoken language is used to announce the death. It can also be used to talk
about the past hence informing us about our history.
d. Instructing, requesting and directing
Here, language is used to regulate people’s action and behavior. For example: A teacher
instructing students to sit down or how to do an exercise. A person may use language to
request for water when he or she is thirsty.
e. Social conventions
When language is used in this context, it cements relationships. Such social conventions
include: greetings, sympathy, congratulations, sympathy, reprimands and condolences.
f. Creative expressions.
Writers and actors use language creatively to express themselves in drama, folklores,
novels, debates, poetry, narratives and some songs to convey message in an aesthetic
manner.
Varieties of Language
Accent
It deals with differences in pronunciation. David Cystle, “An accent is a particular way of
speaking which tells the listener something about the speaker’s background, for example, his
region or country.” We can tell the native speakers of a language by considering the accent, for
example, we can detect French speakers when they are speaking English. However, differences
in accent doesn’t necessarily cause breakdown in communication though it might alter the
meaning intended.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 2
,Dialect
It refers to a variety of language with distinct vocabulary, grammar, lexical items and even
pronunciation (accent). The term connotes with low status form of a language and its unwritten
forms. A dialect is therefore smaller in size and prestige than a language. Based on this, we can
therefore define language as a collection of mutually intelligible dialects.
Types of Dialects
a. Regional Dialect
This results from geographical separations, for instance, rivers, lakes, mountains or
forests.
b. Social Dialect / Sociolect
This may be determined by class, profession, religion, gender, residence, level of income
etc. For instance, in India, each caste speaks its variety of Hindu .i.e. Brahmin or Sutra
c. Idiolect
This is a personal mannerism in the use of language .i.e. in grammar, vocabulary etc.
Register
This is language according to use. It may be defined by field of discourse (occupation, subject
matter, profession), tenor of discourse and mode of discourse (medium). It is therefore a form of
language appropriate to a particular area of human experience such as the legal profession,
religion, politics, medicine, sport commentators, parliament, lecture etc. Register therefore is a
variety of language whose choice is governed by situation, context or setting .i.e. a situational
restricted use of language.
Variables which Govern the Choice of Register / Elements of Register
a. Social differences
Where there is a marked social class system, like it used to be in the U.K. where we had
the upper class, bourgeoisie and the lower class, there are likely to be differences in the
use of language. This may also be linked to the speaker’s level of education.
b. Tenor of Discourse .i.e. the relationship between the speaker and the listener.
The use of language varies a great deal based on the level of relationship between the
speaker and the listener. For instance, the way friends will talk to each other is different
from the way strangers will talk to each other.
c. Mode of discourse / Medium of communication
This is the degree of formality .i.e. the same person can use language with more or less
care depending on the situation he is in. For instance: Conducting an interview (very
formal) and same person chatting at home (very informal). It therefore determines
whether the language will be standard or non-standard or the variation between formal
and informal language. This variation also extends to the written language .i.e. in
personal and official letters. Also, spoken language varies greatly with written language.
Written language is done with a lot of care than spoken language .i.e. medium of
communication.
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 3
, d. Field of Discourse / Occupational differences
The use of special forms or particularly vocabulary depending on what is being talked
about or in specific fields such as computer programming, science, law or medicine can
make the language difficult for the layman to understand. This is what gives rise to the so
called jargon.
Diglossia
Ferguson (1959), defines it as, ‘A situation where two varieties of a language exist side by side
throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.” One of the varieties is
considered ‘formal’ and is held to be high (H) and is used in such functions as sermons, lectures,
political speeches, news broadcast, newspapers etc. It is usually accorded prestige and learnt in
schools. The other variety is said to be low (L) and it is used in ordinary conversation, for
instance, friends or some local radio stations. It is only acquired at home in an informal set up,
for instance, from parents or peers. Diglossia is also defined as two languages which are assigned
distinct functions, for instance, in India where Hindu is high (H) while Khalapun is lower (L).
BASIC LANGUAGE SKILLS
We have four basic language skills that are taught and developed in the following order in
English:
1. Listening
2. Speaking
3. Reading
4. Writing
The skills are further categorized into two as:
a. Receptive skill (the process of taking in information) .i.e. listening and reading.
b. Productive skill (the process of giving out information) .i.e. writing and speaking.
In language development, the receptive skills develop faster than the productive skills. Normally,
children are able to understand more than they can speak, and they read better than they can
write. The four skills should therefore be taught in a sequential and flexible manner in the
process of teaching.
MOTHER TONGUE (MT OR L1) ACQUISITION AND SECOND LANGUAGE (L2)
LEARNING AND DEVELOPMENT
Mother Tongue (MT or L1) Acquisition
Mother tongue is the first native language that a child learns before formal schooling. Basically,
L1 equips the child with oral skills (listening and speaking).
Features of Mother Tongue (MT or L1) Acquisition / Factors that Contribute to Successful
Learning of Mother Tongue
1. Prolonged and intensive exposure to the language
Even before the child starts speaking, the infant is spoken to by the parents, relatives,
house-help and any other people around. Gradually, the infant starts to associate those
Stephen Wekesa Oundo - 0721966706 St. Mary’s TTC – Bura/Taita English Methodology Page 4
