ATTACHMENT
Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father
What is an attachment?
- Defined as a two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each sees
the other as their own emotional validity
- We can recognise an attachment when people display the following behaviours
- Proximity: people try to stay physically closed to those to whom which they
are attached
- Separation distress: people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves
their presence
- Secure-base behaviour; even when we are independent of our attachment
figures we tend to make regular contact with them. Infants display secure-
based behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure while
playing
Reciprocity a description of how two people interact
- Both mother and infant respond to each others signals and each elicits a response,
take it in turns
- Feldman + Eidelman (2007) - babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ to signal when they
are ready to interact. Mothers pick up 2/3rds of the time
- Feldman (2007) - from 3 months this interaction is more frequent and involves close
attention to verbal signals and facial expressions
- Brazelton et al (1975) - baby takes an active role, both PCG and child initiate
interactions and take turns in dong so
Interactional Synchrony mother and infant reflect both actions and emotions of the other
and do this in a coordinated way
- Mother and infant reflect/mirror both the actions and emotions of the other in a
synchronised, co-ordinated way
- Meltzoff and Moore (1977)- observed infants at 2 weeks, adults showed 1 of 3
expressions or gestures and child's response was filmed and identified by
independent observers - association found between action of adult and baby
- Isabella et al (1989) - observed 30 mothers and infants and found that high levels of
synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment.
Evaluation of Caregiver-infant interactions
Strengths
- A strength of research into caregiver-infant reactions is that controlled observations
such as Meltzoff and Moore’s, capture fine detail. For example, in the case of
caregiver-infant observations, they are generally well-controlled, standardised
procedures with both the mother and infant filmed from multiple angles. This is a
strength as it ensures that very fine detail can be captured and analysed, also,
increases reliability as filmings can be rewatched and studies repeated. Furthermore,
babies don't know or care that they are being watched, this means their behaviour
, will not change and can be a true reflection. This is a strength as it increases internal
validity so findings are more valid.
Weaknesses
- A limitation of research is that it is hard to know what is happening when observing
infants. For example, Gratier found that studies involving observation of interaction
between the caregiver and infant have shown the same patterns of interaction.
However, the only thing being observed in these studies are movements and so, it is
difficult to be certain, based on observations of movement, what exactly is going on
from the infant’s perspective. For example, one doesn’t know whether signals from
the infant to the adult are conscious and deliberate or if they are merely unintentional
and accidental. This is a limitation of research as one can’t know for certain that
signals and behaviours seen in the caregiver-infant interaction have a special
meaning or whether they are just unintentional, this therefore reduces the value of
insight research gives us.
- Another limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is that observations
don’t tell us the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity. For example, in 2012, Feldman
pointed out that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at
the same time. The purpose of these behaviours are unknown and therefore,
although these are robust phenomena as they can be readily observed, it is a
limitation as they may not be particularly useful. However, there is some evidence
that reciprocal interaction and synchrony are both helpful in caregiver-infant
interactions and therefore, research isn’t useless. This is especially the case as there
is proof that reciprocal interaction and synchrony are helpful in stress-response,
empathy, language and moral development. Therefore, although it is not clear what
the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity is, one can see they are both helpful in
caregiver-infant interactions and so, it is not a massive limitation of research.
Stages of Attachment
- 4 stages of attachment were identified by Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- Longitudinal study, 60 babies, monthly intervals for 12 months then again at 18
- All from Glasgow, middle class working families, 31 boys, 29 girls
Stage 1: Asocial Stage
- First few weeks
- Baby behaviour similar to non-human objects and humans
- Schaffer and Emerson; prefers humans (happier when they’re present)
- Predisposed to attach to any human
Stage 2: Indiscriminate Stage
- 2-7 months
- Indiscriminate - not different to any one person; accept care from anyone
- Recognise and prefer familiar adults
Stage 3: Discriminate/Specific Attachment
- From 7 months
- Show stranger anxiety
- Shows separation anxiety to one adult; 65% to biological mother
- Attachment has formed
, Stage 4: Multiple Attachments
- 9 months
- Babies form secondary attachments; after forming 1 attachment (secure base) can
move onto making others
- 75% of babies had attachment with father by 18 months
- 29% had secondary attachments within a month of forming primary attachments
- By 1 most have secondary attachments
Evaluation of stages of attachment
Strengths
- A strength of Schaffer’s stages of attachment is that there is good external validity.
For example, most observations on infants are made by the infant's parents during
ordinary activities and reported to researchers. An alternative would have been to
have researchers present when observing and this may have been distracting to the
baby and cause anxiety. As this is not the case and researchers are not present, one
can say the study has good external validity as it is highly likely that participants
behaved naturally whilst being observed
- Another strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s study is it can be used for real world
application as they have practical application in every day care. For example, in
asocial and indiscriminate stages daycare is likely to be straightforward as babies
can be comforted by any skilled adult. However their research tells us that starting
daycare can be more complicated as the baby gets older due to the specific
attachment stage and so, an unfamiliar adult can cause problems. This means that
Schaffer and Emerson’s research can be used to plan the parents' use of daycare.
This is why a lot of babies are sent to daycare earlier so they can form a primary
attachment to their caregiver early on. This is a strength as research from Schaffer
and Emerson has helped parents to understand their babies' needs more
Weaknesses
- A limitation of Schaffer and Emerson’s study is that there is poor evidence for the
asocial stage and there is low validity of measures used to assess attachment. For
example, young babies have poor coordination and are fairly immobile so, it may be
hard to distinguish if young babies were showing anxiety in everyday situations. This
made it hard for mothers to observe and report back to researchers on anxiety.
Therefore, it is a limitation as there is low validity due to the fact that babies may be
more social but because of flawed methods they appear to be asocial
- A limitation of research into the four stages of attachment is that in Schaffer and
Emerson’s study there is low population validity. This is the case because all 60
babies were from Glasgow and also all from skilled working class families. This is an
issue as there is evidence that child rearing practices vary from culture to culture and
time periods. This means that findings lack population validity as they cannot be
generalised to other social and historical contexts. However the use of 31 male and
29 female does increase population validity a little, so although it is a limitation to the
study they do have a good balance of gender.
Role of the father
- Traditionally it was thought father just had a supporting role to mother, but research
shows fathers may have a different role in infant attachment
Caregiver-infant interactions in humans: reciprocity and interactional synchrony. Stages of
attachment identified by Schaffer. Multiple attachments and the role of the father
What is an attachment?
- Defined as a two-way emotional bond between two individuals in which each sees
the other as their own emotional validity
- We can recognise an attachment when people display the following behaviours
- Proximity: people try to stay physically closed to those to whom which they
are attached
- Separation distress: people are distressed when an attachment figure leaves
their presence
- Secure-base behaviour; even when we are independent of our attachment
figures we tend to make regular contact with them. Infants display secure-
based behaviour when they regularly return to their attachment figure while
playing
Reciprocity a description of how two people interact
- Both mother and infant respond to each others signals and each elicits a response,
take it in turns
- Feldman + Eidelman (2007) - babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ to signal when they
are ready to interact. Mothers pick up 2/3rds of the time
- Feldman (2007) - from 3 months this interaction is more frequent and involves close
attention to verbal signals and facial expressions
- Brazelton et al (1975) - baby takes an active role, both PCG and child initiate
interactions and take turns in dong so
Interactional Synchrony mother and infant reflect both actions and emotions of the other
and do this in a coordinated way
- Mother and infant reflect/mirror both the actions and emotions of the other in a
synchronised, co-ordinated way
- Meltzoff and Moore (1977)- observed infants at 2 weeks, adults showed 1 of 3
expressions or gestures and child's response was filmed and identified by
independent observers - association found between action of adult and baby
- Isabella et al (1989) - observed 30 mothers and infants and found that high levels of
synchrony were associated with better quality mother-infant attachment.
Evaluation of Caregiver-infant interactions
Strengths
- A strength of research into caregiver-infant reactions is that controlled observations
such as Meltzoff and Moore’s, capture fine detail. For example, in the case of
caregiver-infant observations, they are generally well-controlled, standardised
procedures with both the mother and infant filmed from multiple angles. This is a
strength as it ensures that very fine detail can be captured and analysed, also,
increases reliability as filmings can be rewatched and studies repeated. Furthermore,
babies don't know or care that they are being watched, this means their behaviour
, will not change and can be a true reflection. This is a strength as it increases internal
validity so findings are more valid.
Weaknesses
- A limitation of research is that it is hard to know what is happening when observing
infants. For example, Gratier found that studies involving observation of interaction
between the caregiver and infant have shown the same patterns of interaction.
However, the only thing being observed in these studies are movements and so, it is
difficult to be certain, based on observations of movement, what exactly is going on
from the infant’s perspective. For example, one doesn’t know whether signals from
the infant to the adult are conscious and deliberate or if they are merely unintentional
and accidental. This is a limitation of research as one can’t know for certain that
signals and behaviours seen in the caregiver-infant interaction have a special
meaning or whether they are just unintentional, this therefore reduces the value of
insight research gives us.
- Another limitation of research into caregiver-infant interactions is that observations
don’t tell us the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity. For example, in 2012, Feldman
pointed out that synchrony and reciprocity simply describe behaviours that occur at
the same time. The purpose of these behaviours are unknown and therefore,
although these are robust phenomena as they can be readily observed, it is a
limitation as they may not be particularly useful. However, there is some evidence
that reciprocal interaction and synchrony are both helpful in caregiver-infant
interactions and therefore, research isn’t useless. This is especially the case as there
is proof that reciprocal interaction and synchrony are helpful in stress-response,
empathy, language and moral development. Therefore, although it is not clear what
the purpose of synchrony and reciprocity is, one can see they are both helpful in
caregiver-infant interactions and so, it is not a massive limitation of research.
Stages of Attachment
- 4 stages of attachment were identified by Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
- Longitudinal study, 60 babies, monthly intervals for 12 months then again at 18
- All from Glasgow, middle class working families, 31 boys, 29 girls
Stage 1: Asocial Stage
- First few weeks
- Baby behaviour similar to non-human objects and humans
- Schaffer and Emerson; prefers humans (happier when they’re present)
- Predisposed to attach to any human
Stage 2: Indiscriminate Stage
- 2-7 months
- Indiscriminate - not different to any one person; accept care from anyone
- Recognise and prefer familiar adults
Stage 3: Discriminate/Specific Attachment
- From 7 months
- Show stranger anxiety
- Shows separation anxiety to one adult; 65% to biological mother
- Attachment has formed
, Stage 4: Multiple Attachments
- 9 months
- Babies form secondary attachments; after forming 1 attachment (secure base) can
move onto making others
- 75% of babies had attachment with father by 18 months
- 29% had secondary attachments within a month of forming primary attachments
- By 1 most have secondary attachments
Evaluation of stages of attachment
Strengths
- A strength of Schaffer’s stages of attachment is that there is good external validity.
For example, most observations on infants are made by the infant's parents during
ordinary activities and reported to researchers. An alternative would have been to
have researchers present when observing and this may have been distracting to the
baby and cause anxiety. As this is not the case and researchers are not present, one
can say the study has good external validity as it is highly likely that participants
behaved naturally whilst being observed
- Another strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s study is it can be used for real world
application as they have practical application in every day care. For example, in
asocial and indiscriminate stages daycare is likely to be straightforward as babies
can be comforted by any skilled adult. However their research tells us that starting
daycare can be more complicated as the baby gets older due to the specific
attachment stage and so, an unfamiliar adult can cause problems. This means that
Schaffer and Emerson’s research can be used to plan the parents' use of daycare.
This is why a lot of babies are sent to daycare earlier so they can form a primary
attachment to their caregiver early on. This is a strength as research from Schaffer
and Emerson has helped parents to understand their babies' needs more
Weaknesses
- A limitation of Schaffer and Emerson’s study is that there is poor evidence for the
asocial stage and there is low validity of measures used to assess attachment. For
example, young babies have poor coordination and are fairly immobile so, it may be
hard to distinguish if young babies were showing anxiety in everyday situations. This
made it hard for mothers to observe and report back to researchers on anxiety.
Therefore, it is a limitation as there is low validity due to the fact that babies may be
more social but because of flawed methods they appear to be asocial
- A limitation of research into the four stages of attachment is that in Schaffer and
Emerson’s study there is low population validity. This is the case because all 60
babies were from Glasgow and also all from skilled working class families. This is an
issue as there is evidence that child rearing practices vary from culture to culture and
time periods. This means that findings lack population validity as they cannot be
generalised to other social and historical contexts. However the use of 31 male and
29 female does increase population validity a little, so although it is a limitation to the
study they do have a good balance of gender.
Role of the father
- Traditionally it was thought father just had a supporting role to mother, but research
shows fathers may have a different role in infant attachment
