Cognitive Psychology – Executive Functions
The concept of executive functions
Executive functions (EF) are somewhat problematic to define. Here are some useful
suggestions:
o Processes involved in optimisation of performance in situations that require
coordination between a number of cognitive processes.
o Supervisory, controlling or meta-cognitive processes, rather than specific to
one domain such as memory, perception or language.
o Linked to the distinction between automatic and controlled processes with
controlled behaviour relying on executive functions.
o Strongly linked with the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
The PFC is a brain region that shows a clear evolutionary progression.
In humans, it occupies about a third of the whole cortical volume
The PFC is typically divided into 3 surfaces:
The lateral surface (from dorsal to ventral)
The medial surface (between the two hemispheres)
The orbitofrontal surface (above the eyes)
The PFC is connected with almost all of the rest of the brain.
The PFC is strategically positioned to allow for control and
coordination of a variety of brain mechanisms.
The lateral surfaces have been linked to ‘cold’ control processes, that
is, the executive control of cognitive functions.
The orbital parts and adjacent medial surface are more linked to ‘hot’
control processes, that is, executive control over emotion and social
behaviour.
Executive functions in practice (Norman & Shallice, 1986)
Norman and Shallice (1986) identify 5 cognitive scenarios in which automatic
behaviour will not be adequate and executive functions will be needed to optimise
performance.
o Situations involving planning or decision making
o Situations involving error correction or trouble shooting
o Situations where responses are not well-learned or contain novel sequences
of actions
o Situations judged to be dangerous or technically difficult
o Situations that require the overcoming of a strong habitual response or
resisting temptation
Planning and decision making:
o The Tower of London task (Shallice, 1982)
Participants are required to move beads between stakes from the
initial position to the goal position.
, The challenge is to reach the goal position in as few moves as
possible.
Performance is measured both in total time to complete and number
of moves.
The task requires planning of the right moves before executing the
correct sequence.
o Functional imaging studies have shown a link between the task and
dorsolateral PFC activation.
o Patients with PFC damage are impaired in performing such a task – they
typically require more moves to reach the goal position. Their performance
suggests they use trial and error rather than planning.
Error correction and troubleshooting
o The Wisconsin Card Sorting task (Milner, 1963)
Participants need to sort cards according to one of 3 possible
dimensions (colour, number, shape) but are not told which one
After each trial feedback is given indicating whether the card was
sorted correctly or not.
After a while the rule changes and the participant needs to work out
what the new rule is.
o A functional imaging study (Monchi et al., 2001) found distinct roles played
by the dorsolateral and ventrolateral PFC.
o The ventrolateral PFC was activated for negative feedback suggesting the
involvement of this region when there is a need to change the rule
o Patients with PFC damage fail to update the rule and produce perseveration
behaviour (keep responding using a previously correct response)
o Thus, such patients fail in their ability for error correction and
troubleshooting.
Overcoming habitual response
o The Stroop task (Stroop, 1935)
Participants are asked to name the ink colour of a printed word.
However, the word meaning may also be a colour name.
Thus, participants need to overcome the habitual response of reading
the word in judging its ink colour.
o The Stroop task has been strongly linked to inhibitory functions: the
prepotent response needs to be inhibited in order to correctly perform the
task.
o Patients with PFC damage generally perform poorly on tasks involving
inhibitory control.
o Brain imaging studies have shown that the anterior cingulate cortex and
nearby pre-SMA are consistently active in healthy participants in situation of
response conflict compared with situations with no response conflict.
Role of the Anterior Cingulate (ACC) in executive functions
o Detection errors and detection response (i.e. potential errors)
The concept of executive functions
Executive functions (EF) are somewhat problematic to define. Here are some useful
suggestions:
o Processes involved in optimisation of performance in situations that require
coordination between a number of cognitive processes.
o Supervisory, controlling or meta-cognitive processes, rather than specific to
one domain such as memory, perception or language.
o Linked to the distinction between automatic and controlled processes with
controlled behaviour relying on executive functions.
o Strongly linked with the prefrontal cortex (PFC)
The PFC is a brain region that shows a clear evolutionary progression.
In humans, it occupies about a third of the whole cortical volume
The PFC is typically divided into 3 surfaces:
The lateral surface (from dorsal to ventral)
The medial surface (between the two hemispheres)
The orbitofrontal surface (above the eyes)
The PFC is connected with almost all of the rest of the brain.
The PFC is strategically positioned to allow for control and
coordination of a variety of brain mechanisms.
The lateral surfaces have been linked to ‘cold’ control processes, that
is, the executive control of cognitive functions.
The orbital parts and adjacent medial surface are more linked to ‘hot’
control processes, that is, executive control over emotion and social
behaviour.
Executive functions in practice (Norman & Shallice, 1986)
Norman and Shallice (1986) identify 5 cognitive scenarios in which automatic
behaviour will not be adequate and executive functions will be needed to optimise
performance.
o Situations involving planning or decision making
o Situations involving error correction or trouble shooting
o Situations where responses are not well-learned or contain novel sequences
of actions
o Situations judged to be dangerous or technically difficult
o Situations that require the overcoming of a strong habitual response or
resisting temptation
Planning and decision making:
o The Tower of London task (Shallice, 1982)
Participants are required to move beads between stakes from the
initial position to the goal position.
, The challenge is to reach the goal position in as few moves as
possible.
Performance is measured both in total time to complete and number
of moves.
The task requires planning of the right moves before executing the
correct sequence.
o Functional imaging studies have shown a link between the task and
dorsolateral PFC activation.
o Patients with PFC damage are impaired in performing such a task – they
typically require more moves to reach the goal position. Their performance
suggests they use trial and error rather than planning.
Error correction and troubleshooting
o The Wisconsin Card Sorting task (Milner, 1963)
Participants need to sort cards according to one of 3 possible
dimensions (colour, number, shape) but are not told which one
After each trial feedback is given indicating whether the card was
sorted correctly or not.
After a while the rule changes and the participant needs to work out
what the new rule is.
o A functional imaging study (Monchi et al., 2001) found distinct roles played
by the dorsolateral and ventrolateral PFC.
o The ventrolateral PFC was activated for negative feedback suggesting the
involvement of this region when there is a need to change the rule
o Patients with PFC damage fail to update the rule and produce perseveration
behaviour (keep responding using a previously correct response)
o Thus, such patients fail in their ability for error correction and
troubleshooting.
Overcoming habitual response
o The Stroop task (Stroop, 1935)
Participants are asked to name the ink colour of a printed word.
However, the word meaning may also be a colour name.
Thus, participants need to overcome the habitual response of reading
the word in judging its ink colour.
o The Stroop task has been strongly linked to inhibitory functions: the
prepotent response needs to be inhibited in order to correctly perform the
task.
o Patients with PFC damage generally perform poorly on tasks involving
inhibitory control.
o Brain imaging studies have shown that the anterior cingulate cortex and
nearby pre-SMA are consistently active in healthy participants in situation of
response conflict compared with situations with no response conflict.
Role of the Anterior Cingulate (ACC) in executive functions
o Detection errors and detection response (i.e. potential errors)
