Q1) Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality (16 marks)
Deviation from social norms defines abnormality as behaviour which goes against the unwritten rules
of society. Some social norms, such as queuing in shops, are unspoken but widely accepted. Others
are both accepted and enforced by the legal system.
One limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it suffers from
temporal validity because social norms change overtime. For example, homosexuality was regarded
as a mental illness in the UK until 1973 which often resulted in institutionalisation. However,
homosexuality is now considered as a variation of normal behaviour. This suggests that, historically, a
reliance upon deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality may have resulted in
violations of human rights in which individuals, by today’s standards, were deemed ‘abnormal’. It
could be argued that diagnoses upon these grounds may have been used as a form of social control
over minority groups as a means to exclude those who do not conform.
Another limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it is context
dependent. For example, an individual walking topless on a beach would be considered normal but
adopting the same attire for the office would be viewed as abnormal and possibly an indication of an
underlying psychological problem. This suggests that how far an individual deviate from a particular
social norm is mediated by the severity of their behaviour. When someone breaks a social norm once
this may not be deviant behaviour, but persistent repetition of such behaviour could be evidence of
psychological disturbance. As a result, this definition fails to offer a complete explanation in its own
right because different conclusions are reached of the same behaviour in different contexts.
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is numerically uncommon. For example,
the average IQ is set at 100. Most people have an IQ in the range from 85 to 115. Only 2% of people
have a score below 70. Those individuals scoring below 70 classed as ‘abnormal’ and are liable to
receive a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.
One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it does not consider the
context and cultural factors that may influence behaviour. Certain behaviours that are common in
one culture may be less frequent or even considered abnormal in another. For example, In Japan,
tattoos are very rare, whereas, in the UK, one in three adults has one. Therefore, behaviour
considered abnormal in Japan is much more accepted in the UK. This example highlights that
statistical definitions of normality are culturally dependent and unreliable. This is a weakness
because the definition cannot be generalised to every culture. By using this definition, some
individuals might be inaccurately defined as being abnormal.
Another limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it suggests that
anyone who differs from the ‘average’ is technically abnormal. For example, it doesn’t consider the
desirability of behaviours, highly intelligent people are statistically rare and are thus, according to
this definition, abnormal. This is a weakness as just because somebody falls outside of the
statistically common area of the distribution curve, it doesn’t necessary mean that they are able.
Therefore, suggesting that the statistical infrequency definition is not always accurate in defining
abnormality.
Definitions of abnormality typically take a nomothetic approach and try to identify a list of factors or
symptoms that can be used to diagnose abnormal behaviour. However, humanistic psychologists
, would argue that this approach ignores the essence of being human, such as individual differences.
Therefore, an idiographic approach to defining abnormality might be more appropriate.
Q2) Discuss deviation from ideal mental health and failure to function adequately as two
definitions of abnormality (16 marks)
Jahoda identified a list of characteristics which indicate ideal mental health. This included: a positive
attitude to oneself, autonomy, coping with stress, environmental mastery, self-actualisation, and an
accurate perception of reality. Deviation from ideal mental health defines abnormality as behaviours
which differ from Jahoda’s criteria.
One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that Jahoda’s
criteria results in overdiagnoses of abnormality. There are times when everyone will experience stress
and negativity, for example, when grieving following the death of a loved one. However, according to
this definition, these people would be classified as abnormal, irrespective of the circumstances which
are outside their control. With the high standards set by these criteria, how many need to be absent
for diagnosis to occur needs to be questioned.
Another limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that
Jahoda’s criteria is Western-centric. This definition uses western ideas regarding mental health as a
universal judgment. For example, Jahoda’s emphasis on personal growth and individual autonomy
reflects Western, individualistic culture and not collectivist cultures. This is culturally biased as it
assumes western views on mental health are shared worldwide. This is a limitation because it means
that the definition is subjective and should only be used in the culture in which it has been developed,
is not value-free and therefore may be biased.
Failure to function adequately (FFA) defines abnormality as behaviour which prevents an individual
from carrying out mundane behaviours that society would expect from them. For example, getting up
out of bed in the morning every day or brushing their teeth twice a day.
One strength of FFA as a definition of abnormality is that it considers the subjective experiences of
individuals. For example, FFA analyses the thoughts and feelings of the individuals as well as the
issues they are facing, without making a judgements based on a predetermined list of symptoms.
This means that a failure to function adequately approach can encourage someone with a mental
illness or their loved ones to seek help even if the mentally ill person's behaviour may appear 'normal'
to others. This suggests that the FFA definition is a useful tool for assessing psychopathological
behaviour as it considers the effect of a person’s symptoms on their everyday life.
Q3) Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (16 marks)
The two-process model assumes that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning. Individuals
acquire phobias by associating a neutral stimulus to a fear inducing event. This leads to the neutral
stimulus becoming a conditioned phobic stimulus. This phobic stimulus would then result in a
conditioned response of fear. The two-process model assumes that phobias are maintained through
negative reinforcement. When an individual perceives the phobic stimulus, they will feel fear which is
an example of punishment. This reduces the likelihood of them going near the phobic stimulus. The
individual would feel calmer avoiding the phobic stimulus. This negative reinforcement increases the
likelihood of avoidance.
One strength of the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias is that it is supported by research
evidence. Watson and Raynor demonstrated the process of acquiring phobias through classical
conditioning in the Little Albert experiment in which Albert was conditioned to fear white rats. This
Deviation from social norms defines abnormality as behaviour which goes against the unwritten rules
of society. Some social norms, such as queuing in shops, are unspoken but widely accepted. Others
are both accepted and enforced by the legal system.
One limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it suffers from
temporal validity because social norms change overtime. For example, homosexuality was regarded
as a mental illness in the UK until 1973 which often resulted in institutionalisation. However,
homosexuality is now considered as a variation of normal behaviour. This suggests that, historically, a
reliance upon deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality may have resulted in
violations of human rights in which individuals, by today’s standards, were deemed ‘abnormal’. It
could be argued that diagnoses upon these grounds may have been used as a form of social control
over minority groups as a means to exclude those who do not conform.
Another limitation of deviation from social norms as a definition of abnormality is that it is context
dependent. For example, an individual walking topless on a beach would be considered normal but
adopting the same attire for the office would be viewed as abnormal and possibly an indication of an
underlying psychological problem. This suggests that how far an individual deviate from a particular
social norm is mediated by the severity of their behaviour. When someone breaks a social norm once
this may not be deviant behaviour, but persistent repetition of such behaviour could be evidence of
psychological disturbance. As a result, this definition fails to offer a complete explanation in its own
right because different conclusions are reached of the same behaviour in different contexts.
Statistical infrequency defines abnormality as behaviour that is numerically uncommon. For example,
the average IQ is set at 100. Most people have an IQ in the range from 85 to 115. Only 2% of people
have a score below 70. Those individuals scoring below 70 classed as ‘abnormal’ and are liable to
receive a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder.
One limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it does not consider the
context and cultural factors that may influence behaviour. Certain behaviours that are common in
one culture may be less frequent or even considered abnormal in another. For example, In Japan,
tattoos are very rare, whereas, in the UK, one in three adults has one. Therefore, behaviour
considered abnormal in Japan is much more accepted in the UK. This example highlights that
statistical definitions of normality are culturally dependent and unreliable. This is a weakness
because the definition cannot be generalised to every culture. By using this definition, some
individuals might be inaccurately defined as being abnormal.
Another limitation of statistical infrequency as a definition of abnormality is that it suggests that
anyone who differs from the ‘average’ is technically abnormal. For example, it doesn’t consider the
desirability of behaviours, highly intelligent people are statistically rare and are thus, according to
this definition, abnormal. This is a weakness as just because somebody falls outside of the
statistically common area of the distribution curve, it doesn’t necessary mean that they are able.
Therefore, suggesting that the statistical infrequency definition is not always accurate in defining
abnormality.
Definitions of abnormality typically take a nomothetic approach and try to identify a list of factors or
symptoms that can be used to diagnose abnormal behaviour. However, humanistic psychologists
, would argue that this approach ignores the essence of being human, such as individual differences.
Therefore, an idiographic approach to defining abnormality might be more appropriate.
Q2) Discuss deviation from ideal mental health and failure to function adequately as two
definitions of abnormality (16 marks)
Jahoda identified a list of characteristics which indicate ideal mental health. This included: a positive
attitude to oneself, autonomy, coping with stress, environmental mastery, self-actualisation, and an
accurate perception of reality. Deviation from ideal mental health defines abnormality as behaviours
which differ from Jahoda’s criteria.
One limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that Jahoda’s
criteria results in overdiagnoses of abnormality. There are times when everyone will experience stress
and negativity, for example, when grieving following the death of a loved one. However, according to
this definition, these people would be classified as abnormal, irrespective of the circumstances which
are outside their control. With the high standards set by these criteria, how many need to be absent
for diagnosis to occur needs to be questioned.
Another limitation of deviation from ideal mental health as a definition of abnormality is that
Jahoda’s criteria is Western-centric. This definition uses western ideas regarding mental health as a
universal judgment. For example, Jahoda’s emphasis on personal growth and individual autonomy
reflects Western, individualistic culture and not collectivist cultures. This is culturally biased as it
assumes western views on mental health are shared worldwide. This is a limitation because it means
that the definition is subjective and should only be used in the culture in which it has been developed,
is not value-free and therefore may be biased.
Failure to function adequately (FFA) defines abnormality as behaviour which prevents an individual
from carrying out mundane behaviours that society would expect from them. For example, getting up
out of bed in the morning every day or brushing their teeth twice a day.
One strength of FFA as a definition of abnormality is that it considers the subjective experiences of
individuals. For example, FFA analyses the thoughts and feelings of the individuals as well as the
issues they are facing, without making a judgements based on a predetermined list of symptoms.
This means that a failure to function adequately approach can encourage someone with a mental
illness or their loved ones to seek help even if the mentally ill person's behaviour may appear 'normal'
to others. This suggests that the FFA definition is a useful tool for assessing psychopathological
behaviour as it considers the effect of a person’s symptoms on their everyday life.
Q3) Discuss the behavioural approach to explaining phobias (16 marks)
The two-process model assumes that phobias are acquired through classical conditioning. Individuals
acquire phobias by associating a neutral stimulus to a fear inducing event. This leads to the neutral
stimulus becoming a conditioned phobic stimulus. This phobic stimulus would then result in a
conditioned response of fear. The two-process model assumes that phobias are maintained through
negative reinforcement. When an individual perceives the phobic stimulus, they will feel fear which is
an example of punishment. This reduces the likelihood of them going near the phobic stimulus. The
individual would feel calmer avoiding the phobic stimulus. This negative reinforcement increases the
likelihood of avoidance.
One strength of the behaviourist approach to explaining phobias is that it is supported by research
evidence. Watson and Raynor demonstrated the process of acquiring phobias through classical
conditioning in the Little Albert experiment in which Albert was conditioned to fear white rats. This
