Q1) Discuss the multi-store model of memory (16 marks)
Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of memory (MSM). The MSM suggests that
memory is made up of three components: sensory register (SR), short ‐term memory (STM) and long ‐
term memory (LTM). The MSM assumes that memory flows sequentially, from one store to another,
in a linear fashion. The SR gains information through our sense such as sight or sound. The SR has a
limited capacity and a duration of less than 1 second. The STM holds information that is acoustically
encoded. The STM has a limited capacity of 7+/-2 items and a limited duration of 20 seconds. If the
information in the STM is rehearsed, the information will transfer to the LTM. The LTM holds
information that is semantically encoded. The LTM has an unlimited capacity and duration.
One strength of the MSM is that it has research support from psychological studies. For example,
Miller (1959) supports the idea of a limited capacity of 7+/ ‐2 chunks of information in STM, Peterson
& Peterson (1959) support the idea of a limited duration in STM of approximately 20 seconds, and
Bahrick (1975) supports the idea of a lifetime duration in LTM. These studies all support the different
elements of the MSM. Therefore, this suggests that the model is an accurate representation of
human memory. However, research examining the MSM is an example of experimental reductionism.
This is because it attempts to explain a complex behaviour by relying on isolated variables,
operationalised in laboratory experiments such as the capacity of STM, or duration of STM. However,
as memory is a complex phenomenon, many psychologists argue that reducing memory to isolated
variables undermines the complexity of human memory and does not provide us with a
comprehensive understanding of memory in everyday contexts.
One limitation of the MSM is that it provides an oversimplistic explanation for memory. Research
conducted by Baddeley suggests that there are multiple components in the STM. During his dual-task
study, Baddeley found that participants found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks
simultaneously in comparison to carrying out one visual task and one verbal task simultaneously.
Participants found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks because they were both competing for
the same slave system, the visuospatial sketchpad. Although the MSM is oversimplistic, it has helped
to grow the field of psychology. This is because the MSM has given other researchers a foundation to
build on and discover more about memory.
Q2) Discuss types of long-term memory (16 marks)
Tulving suggested that there are at least three types of long-term memory (LTM): episodic memory,
semantic memory, and procedural memory. Episodic memory is a LTM store for information about
events we have personally experienced which requires conscious effort to recall memories. Semantic
memory is a LTM store for knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and
facts. It also requires conscious effort to recall memories. Procedural memory is a LTM store for our
knowledge of how to do things. Includes memories of learned skills.
It does not require conscious effort to recall memories.
One strength of Tulving’s theory is that there is clinical evidence which supports there being different
LTM stores. HM and Clive Wearing both had their episodic memories severely impaired due to their
amnesia. However, their semantic memories were unaffected. For example, HM understood what a
dog was but could not remember stroking one before. As well as this, both of their procedural
memories were also unaffected. For example, Wearing was still able to play the piano. This
demonstrates how one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected. This is clear evidence
that not only are these types of memory different, but they are stored in different parts of the brain.
, As well as this, neuroimaging also supports Tulving's theory. Brain scan studies show that different
memory types are stored in different parts of the brain. For example, Tulving et al. (1994) got
participants to perform various memory tasks while their brains were scanned using a PET scanner.
They found that episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex and semantic
memories were both recalled from the left prefrontal cortex. This suggest that different parts of the
brain are active when accessing episodic, semantic, and procedural memories. This supports the idea
that LTM is made up of at least three distinct categories.
Understanding different types of memory allows for the development of helpful real ‐world
applications. Belleville et al compared the performance of older people suffering with a mild cognitive
impairment who received memory training to a control group who did not receive memory training.
It was found that participants in the experimental group performed better on a test of episodic
memory. This suggests that being able to identify different types of LTM can provide psychologists
with the opportunity to improve peoples’ lives though devising appropriate treatments to help
alleviate the problems associated with age ‐related memory impairment.
Q3) Discuss what psychological research has shown about working memory. Refer to theory
and/or evidence (16 marks)
Baddeley and Hitch proposed the working memory model (WMM) to overcome the limitations of the
multi-store model. The WMM suggests that short-term memory (STM) consists of multiple stores, not
just one unitary store, and that STM is an active process. The central executive controls the WMM
and directs attention to one of three slave systems. The phonological loop encodes acoustic
information that is received through our senses. The phonological loop has a limited duration of 1-2
seconds. The visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) encodes visual and spatial information. The VSS has a
limited capacity of 3-4 items. The episodic buffer is a general store for both visual and acoustic
information. The purpose of the episodic buffer is to integrate information from the other three
components and send information to long-term memory.
One strength of the WMM is that it provides a more detailed explanation for memory compared to
the multi-store model (MSM). This is because the MSM assumes that memory flows sequentially
from one store to another whereas the WMM suggests that STM is an active process. Research done
by Baddeley suggests that there are multiple components of the STM. Participants found it more
difficult to perform two visual tasks simultaneously in comparison to a verbal and a visual task. This
suggests that there is a specific subsystem within the STM that deals with verbal tasks. Participants
found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks because they were both competing for the same
subsystem, the VSS. This supports the idea of multiple components within STM and demonstrates the
existence of a separate central executive and articulatory loop. Therefore, this supports the WMM
over its predecessor the MSM.
As well as this, research support from Kuznekoff and Titsworth (2013) has shown how multi-tasking
can impact learning. 54 American college students were asked to watch a 12-minute video lecture
and told them to take notes as they normally would in class. After viewing the video, they were given
three minutes to review and then two tests: a multiple-choice test and a free recall test. But there
were three different conditions: a high distraction group, a low distraction group and a control group.
Students in the distraction groups used their mobile phones to access a webpage that sent them
messages to respond to. Messages were sent every 30 seconds in the high-distraction group and
every 60 seconds in the low-distraction group. The control condition scored 66% on the multiple-
choice quiz, compared to 60% and 52% for the low and high-distraction groups, respectively. The
control condition also wrote 62% more in their notes and scored higher in the free recall test than the
Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of memory (MSM). The MSM suggests that
memory is made up of three components: sensory register (SR), short ‐term memory (STM) and long ‐
term memory (LTM). The MSM assumes that memory flows sequentially, from one store to another,
in a linear fashion. The SR gains information through our sense such as sight or sound. The SR has a
limited capacity and a duration of less than 1 second. The STM holds information that is acoustically
encoded. The STM has a limited capacity of 7+/-2 items and a limited duration of 20 seconds. If the
information in the STM is rehearsed, the information will transfer to the LTM. The LTM holds
information that is semantically encoded. The LTM has an unlimited capacity and duration.
One strength of the MSM is that it has research support from psychological studies. For example,
Miller (1959) supports the idea of a limited capacity of 7+/ ‐2 chunks of information in STM, Peterson
& Peterson (1959) support the idea of a limited duration in STM of approximately 20 seconds, and
Bahrick (1975) supports the idea of a lifetime duration in LTM. These studies all support the different
elements of the MSM. Therefore, this suggests that the model is an accurate representation of
human memory. However, research examining the MSM is an example of experimental reductionism.
This is because it attempts to explain a complex behaviour by relying on isolated variables,
operationalised in laboratory experiments such as the capacity of STM, or duration of STM. However,
as memory is a complex phenomenon, many psychologists argue that reducing memory to isolated
variables undermines the complexity of human memory and does not provide us with a
comprehensive understanding of memory in everyday contexts.
One limitation of the MSM is that it provides an oversimplistic explanation for memory. Research
conducted by Baddeley suggests that there are multiple components in the STM. During his dual-task
study, Baddeley found that participants found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks
simultaneously in comparison to carrying out one visual task and one verbal task simultaneously.
Participants found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks because they were both competing for
the same slave system, the visuospatial sketchpad. Although the MSM is oversimplistic, it has helped
to grow the field of psychology. This is because the MSM has given other researchers a foundation to
build on and discover more about memory.
Q2) Discuss types of long-term memory (16 marks)
Tulving suggested that there are at least three types of long-term memory (LTM): episodic memory,
semantic memory, and procedural memory. Episodic memory is a LTM store for information about
events we have personally experienced which requires conscious effort to recall memories. Semantic
memory is a LTM store for knowledge about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and
facts. It also requires conscious effort to recall memories. Procedural memory is a LTM store for our
knowledge of how to do things. Includes memories of learned skills.
It does not require conscious effort to recall memories.
One strength of Tulving’s theory is that there is clinical evidence which supports there being different
LTM stores. HM and Clive Wearing both had their episodic memories severely impaired due to their
amnesia. However, their semantic memories were unaffected. For example, HM understood what a
dog was but could not remember stroking one before. As well as this, both of their procedural
memories were also unaffected. For example, Wearing was still able to play the piano. This
demonstrates how one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected. This is clear evidence
that not only are these types of memory different, but they are stored in different parts of the brain.
, As well as this, neuroimaging also supports Tulving's theory. Brain scan studies show that different
memory types are stored in different parts of the brain. For example, Tulving et al. (1994) got
participants to perform various memory tasks while their brains were scanned using a PET scanner.
They found that episodic memories were recalled from the right prefrontal cortex and semantic
memories were both recalled from the left prefrontal cortex. This suggest that different parts of the
brain are active when accessing episodic, semantic, and procedural memories. This supports the idea
that LTM is made up of at least three distinct categories.
Understanding different types of memory allows for the development of helpful real ‐world
applications. Belleville et al compared the performance of older people suffering with a mild cognitive
impairment who received memory training to a control group who did not receive memory training.
It was found that participants in the experimental group performed better on a test of episodic
memory. This suggests that being able to identify different types of LTM can provide psychologists
with the opportunity to improve peoples’ lives though devising appropriate treatments to help
alleviate the problems associated with age ‐related memory impairment.
Q3) Discuss what psychological research has shown about working memory. Refer to theory
and/or evidence (16 marks)
Baddeley and Hitch proposed the working memory model (WMM) to overcome the limitations of the
multi-store model. The WMM suggests that short-term memory (STM) consists of multiple stores, not
just one unitary store, and that STM is an active process. The central executive controls the WMM
and directs attention to one of three slave systems. The phonological loop encodes acoustic
information that is received through our senses. The phonological loop has a limited duration of 1-2
seconds. The visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) encodes visual and spatial information. The VSS has a
limited capacity of 3-4 items. The episodic buffer is a general store for both visual and acoustic
information. The purpose of the episodic buffer is to integrate information from the other three
components and send information to long-term memory.
One strength of the WMM is that it provides a more detailed explanation for memory compared to
the multi-store model (MSM). This is because the MSM assumes that memory flows sequentially
from one store to another whereas the WMM suggests that STM is an active process. Research done
by Baddeley suggests that there are multiple components of the STM. Participants found it more
difficult to perform two visual tasks simultaneously in comparison to a verbal and a visual task. This
suggests that there is a specific subsystem within the STM that deals with verbal tasks. Participants
found it more difficult to perform two visual tasks because they were both competing for the same
subsystem, the VSS. This supports the idea of multiple components within STM and demonstrates the
existence of a separate central executive and articulatory loop. Therefore, this supports the WMM
over its predecessor the MSM.
As well as this, research support from Kuznekoff and Titsworth (2013) has shown how multi-tasking
can impact learning. 54 American college students were asked to watch a 12-minute video lecture
and told them to take notes as they normally would in class. After viewing the video, they were given
three minutes to review and then two tests: a multiple-choice test and a free recall test. But there
were three different conditions: a high distraction group, a low distraction group and a control group.
Students in the distraction groups used their mobile phones to access a webpage that sent them
messages to respond to. Messages were sent every 30 seconds in the high-distraction group and
every 60 seconds in the low-distraction group. The control condition scored 66% on the multiple-
choice quiz, compared to 60% and 52% for the low and high-distraction groups, respectively. The
control condition also wrote 62% more in their notes and scored higher in the free recall test than the
