GEOGRAPHY A LEVEL EDEXCEL PAPER 2 LATEST SOLUTION 2025/2026 GUARANTEED GRADE A+

GEOGRAPHY A LEVEL EDEXCEL PAPER 2 LATEST SOLUTION 2025/2026 GUARANTEED GRADE A+ Globalisation The growing interdependence of countries, people and cultures worldwide through increasing connections including trade in goods and services and flows of capital, technology and ideas/ Shrinking world Although physical distances around the world are unchanged, technology has massively reduced the time it takes to trade, travel, and communicate globally. Transport developments for globalisation - Railways - Aircraft - Containerisation ICT developments for globalisation - Mobile phones/telephones - The internet - GIS/GPS - Broadband/fibre optics Political and economic organisations 1. World bank 2. International monetary fund (IMF) 3. World Trade Organisation (WTO) Why were political and economic organisations needed post WW2? Following the second-world-war, the economically weak western nations wanted to prevent the spread of communism from the east, which they saw as a threat. These organisations were established for economic development, and to control and oversee international agreements. Trade restrictions - Tariffs - Quotas - Embargo - Subsidies Tariffs A tax placed on goods that are imported from other countries Quotas A limit placed on the number of goods that are imported from other countries Embargo A ban placed on certain goods imported from other countries Subsidies A sum of money granted by the government to help an industry or business keep the price of goods low WTO goal The WTO wants to eradicate barriers to trade Free Trade Trade without any restrictions Free Trade process 1. Governments take away barriers that make trade more difficult and costly. 2. As coasts are reduced, TNCs will see a profit and want to invest in nations. 3. TNCs will bring new ideas, products, cultures, etc. to a nation 4. Also the TNC will generate wealth. 5. Their wealth and development will increase standard of life and demand for foreign products. 6. As an economy has more TNCs, they become more interconnected and interdependent for each other. Trading Blocs Countries which group together to improve their economic interest and trading patterns. They often do this by placing barriers to trade with countries outside the group. NAFTA North American Free Trade Agreement - USA, Mexico, Canada - Population = 472m - Combined GDP (PPP) = $20.2 tn EU European Union - Population = 508m = GDP (PPP) $19 tn MERCOSAR Southern Common Market - Six full members - Population = 289m - GDP (PPP) $4 tn - South America OPEC Organisation of petroleum exporting countries - A group of 12 major oil producing countries - African, South American, and Middle Eastern members - Control around 2/3 of global oil reserves - They can make sure they get a fair price from oil consuming countries ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations - 10 countries formed in 1967 - Combined population of 625 million - Combined GDP (PPP) = $3.6 tn - Seventh largest economy in the world Social positives of trading groups - Withing social and political unions people are often free to live and work in the country of their choice within the union. - Living standards go up as trade prospers Social negatives of trading groups - With relaxed borders it is easier for illegal immigrants to move around within the bloc - Legislation can limit workers as well as protect them Economic positives of trading groups - Trade blocs protect the are'as economy from competition - Free trade within the bloc - Market access and trade creation - Economies of scale - Jobs may be created as a consequence of increased trade between member economies - Firms inside the bloc are protected from cheaper imports from outside. - Inefficient producers within the bloc can be protected from more efficient ones outside the bloc. - Being within a trading bloc encourages FOREIGN DIRECT INVESTMENT from TNCs - Trading blocs can help companies grow Economic negatives of trading groups - The benefits of global free trade can be lost as countries concentrate trade withing their trade area or bloc - Trade blocs cost money Environmental positive of trading groups Social and economic unions can set high environmental standards Environmental negative of trading groups Trading blocs increase food miles as the cheapest product within the bloc will be the most traded. Political positives of trading groups - Weaker disadvantaged peripheral regions can be supported by the stronger areas. - The incentives of trade and political cooperation help to reduce the chances of violent conflict. - Giving smaller, individual countries greater political influence when dealing with other nations. Political negatives of trading groups - Trade wars - Non-member countries of the trade bloc will be ostracised - Loss of some financial controls to a central authority - Trading blocs add another layer of government which costs money and add complications for countries making their own decisions - Loss of sovereignty - Some smaller regions don't like big government and this has led the drive to SEPERATISM Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) an investment made by a company based in one country, into a company based in other countries (money, people...) Types of foreign direct investment - Offshoring - Foreign Merging - Foreign Acquisition - Transfer Pricing Offshoring Some TNCs build their own production facilities in 'offshore' low-wage economies. Foreign Merging Two firms in different countries join forces to create a single entity Foreign acquisitions When a TNC launches a takeover of a company in a different country. Transfer Pricing Some TNCs have sometimes channelled profits through a subsidiary company in a low-tax county. Government policies encouraging globalisation - Neoliberalism - Privatisation - Enterprise Zones New Global Regions Developing/emerging economies Privatisation Allowing foreign investors to gain a stake in privatised national services and infrastructure. Neoliberalism beliefs - Government intervention is markets impedes economic development. - As wealth increases, trickle down will take place from the richest to the poorest. Open Door Policy (1978) Deng realised that China needed Western technology and investment, and opened the door to foreign businesses who wanted to set up in China. SEZ Special Economic Zones in China, similar to UK enterprise zones. Open Door Policy timeline 1. In 1978 Deng Xiaoping Began the open door policy. 2. The first reforms were in rural areas - agricultural communes were dismantled and farmers were allowed to make a small profit. 3. At the same time (around 1979) the One Child Policy was also introduced. This curbed the rapidly growing population. 4. Industrialisation grew rapidly. 5. Over the next 30 years large migration took place. 300 million people moved from rural areas to cities. More would have left but the government had a system called hukou which prevented villages from being deserted. 6. New urban areas began to appear. Many of which are 'instant cities' 7. An urban mega-region grew around the Pear River Delta (SEZ) including Shenzhen, Dongguan and Guangzhou. 8. This took advantage of the industrilaising process which established SEZs. They established their own factories or created trade relationships. Many of the these were low wage. China got the nickname 'Workshop of the World. 9. By the 1990s, 50% of China's GDP was generated in SEZs allowing China's economy to mature. 10. This economic growth has allowed 400 million to escape poverty. 11. By 2015, many workers were earning $40 a day or more. Factors that make China attractive for FDI - government backing - politically stable - emerging market - good infrastructure - positive image - stable currency - tax incentives - cheap skilled labour - cheap freight China FDI: government backing Many Chinese companies TNCs would do business with are part owned or backed by the state. This reduces risk of losses. China FDI: politically stable The communist party has been in power since 1949. This reduces risk for TNCs. China FDI: emerging market As wealth trickles down into the Chinese population via the multiplier effect there is huge potential to sell goods. China FDI: good infrastructure Chinese government will build large industrial estates with mega buildings, roads, reliable water and electricity supply and TNC migrant employees will be employed. China FDI: positive image China used the 2008 Olympics to reimagine itself as a forward looking, powerful and wealthy country. There was criticism about Tibet. China FDI: stable currency The exchange rate for the Yuan is pegged to US$ and backed by Chinese government. Reduces risk of losses. China FDI: tax incentives SEZs where can import and export paying reduced tariffs or taxes. This cuts costs and maximises profits. SEZs have more liberal and open minded economic laws. China FDI: cheap skilled labour Labour is very cheap in China. Reduces cost and maximises profits. Highly skilled workers are driving up wages. Prolonged spending on health and education provide a healthy and skilled workforce. China FDI: cheap freight In the early 2000s shipping fees were low. However there is nie q shortage of shipping slots driving up the leixe. Companies with larger volumes get priority bookings. Relatively low prices still enable TNCs to outsource manufacturing to far off places and still make money. Switched on places Those nations, regions or cities that are strongly connected to other places through the production and consumption of goods and services. Switched off places In contrast, places that are poorly connected. Two main ways to measure Globisation 1. KOF Index 2. AT Kearney KOF Index measures/compares countries AT Kearney Measures/compares cities. Human reasons for a country to be 'switched off' - Lack of skills and literacy deters inward investment (e.g. Somalia) - Politically isolated (e.g. North Korea, Myanmar) - Low prices for food exports due to overproduction and trade rules (e.g. Ethiopia) - Ethnic clashes and civil war between tribes (e.g. DR Congo) Physical reasons for a country to be 'switched off' - Poor resources for agriculture (e.g. Eritrea) - Physical isolation and lack of coastline deters investors seeking an import/export base (e.g. Niger) - Highly vulnerable to climate change and natural hazards (e.g. Mozambique). Combined human and physical reasons for a country to be 'switched off' - Natural resources are controlled by a small elite (e.g. Zimbabwe) - Natural resources are controlled by foreign TNCs due to old trade agreements that need renegotiating (e.g. Sierra Leone) - Infighting over natural resources - 'resource curse' (e.g. Sudan) TNC transnational corporation (companies operating in a number of countries at any given time) Glocalisation - The changing design of products to meet local tastes or laws - TNCs adapt this tactic to open and conquer new markets - Glocalisation adapts the business to address geographical variations around the world Job types - Primary - Secondary - Tertiary - Quarternary Primary jobs exploiting natural resources Primary jobs example farming, mining Secondary jobs manufacturing secondary jobs example construction, car assembly tertiary jobs services tertiary jobs example shop assistant, call centre quartenary jobs IT or research and development Global shift Describes the international relocation of different types of industrial activity, especially manufacturing industries (and other services e.g. call centres) Economic centre of gravity The economic centre of the world, calculated by weighted average of each countries GDP. Historical changes in economic centre of gravity 1. Before Europes industrial age, ancient trade routes brought valuables from Europe to India, South Asia and China. 2. 19th century industrialisation shifted production to Europe and North America and Asia's significance declined. 3. Late 20th century, production shifted to cheap labour and faster shipping times in China, encouraging businesses to relocate to Asia. Multiplier effect or cumulative causation The introduction of a new industry or the expansion of an existing industry in an area also encourages growth in other industrial sectors. How many times money spent circulates through a country's economy. how an area can develop as a growth pole 1. Introduction of new industry or expansion of existing firm. 2. Creates more jobs. 3. Improves pool of trained labour. 4. Increased demand for services. 5. Increases population, greater local wealth. 6. Increased income from taxes and higher spending power. 7. New construction activity, growth of tertiary sector. 8. Area becomes a growth pole. 9. Invention and innovation. 10. Attraction of linked industries. 11. Forward linkages to firms processing the product or using it as a component. Backward linkages to firms supplying raw materials or component parts. 12. Process begins again. Global Shift costs for china 1. Pollution and health problems 2. Over-expolitation of resources. 3. Land degradation 4. Increase in unplanned settlements 5. Loss of biodiversity 6. Loss of productive farmland Global Shift costs for china: Increase in unplanned settlements - Urgent need for urban housing, which has resulted in a big increase in informal homes. - decent housing unaffordable - Expanded homes in villages located on the edges of cities. Villages add extra storeys to their houses and then rent the extra space to migrant workers. - Farmland is privately developed. Global Shift costs for china: loss of biodiversity - China has abundant oil and coal, as well as key metals such as iron ore. - Chinese government has sought additional resources in Africa and Latin America. - Amazonian rainforest has been cleared in Ecuador. Global Shift costs for china: land degradation - Despite having 22% of the world's population, China only has 6.4% of its land - Over 40% of China's land is now suffering degradation. - The rich black soils in the north are eroding. Global Shift costs for china: loss of productive farmland - Increasing loss of farmland since 2000 - Over 3 million hectares of arable farmland has been polluted with heavy metals. Global Shift costs for china: pollution and health problems - China's air pollution, caused mostly by coal-fired power stations, is so bad that Beijing has frequent pollution alerts. - 70% of China's rivers and lakes are now polluted. - 100 cities suffer from extreme water shortages, and 360 million Chinese do not have access to safe drinking water. Global Shift benefits for china: 1. Reduction in poverty 2. Increased urban incomes 3. Better education and training 4. Investment in infrastructure Global Shift benefits for china: investment in infrastructure - The world's longest highway network - Rail system had reached 100000km in length - high-speed rail system was the world's longest - Shanghai's Maglev had become the world's fastest commercial train service. - 82 airports had been built since 2000 Global Shift benefits for china: better education and training - Education is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 15. - 94% of Chinese over the age of 15 are now literate. - 7.2 million Chinese graduated from university - big rural-urban divide Global Shift benefits for china: reduction in poverty - Over 300 million Chinese people are now considered to be middle class - sales of consumer items have also rocketed - Poverty in China has reduced significantly - Also reduced its extreme poverty rate. - Many cope with low incomes because of payments sent home by urban family members (known as remittance payments). Global Shift benefits for china: increased urban incomes - Urban incomes in China have increased sharply since 2000 - As a result of China's one-child policy, employers have had to pay higher wages to recruit staff. - Urban incomes have risen by 10% a year since 2005: by 2014, they averaged US$9000 a year. - Their terms and conditions include a 40-hour week, with higher overtime rates as well as laid holidays - There is a big and growing rural-urban divine in China. - In 2013, per capita net annual income after taxes and rent (disposable income) for the poorest 20% of rural households was the equivalent of £412 Environmental Kuznet's Curve A graph of environmental deterioration against per capita income that shows a curve. As a country's per capita income increases at first it becomes more environmentally damaging, but later it begins to do more for environmental improvement. Environmental Kuznets Curve An inverted U-shaped curve illustrating that as gross domestic product rises in emerging economies pollution goes through stages of rapid increase, leveling off, and decline. Pearl River Delta The pearl river delta metropolitan region is the low-lying area surrounding the pearl river estuary in Guangdong. The Pearl River flies into the South China Sea. It is included in a special economic zone, and includes one of the 'open cities'. Changes to Pearl River Delta from 1978 to 2003. - More artificial canals as in 1979 people in China did not have the resources or need to develop them. - Estuary has got shallower due to less vegetation leading to more soil erosion, increasing sediment in the river. - Far less vegetation due to the urbanisation of former farmland and wilderness. - Evidnece of industry taking advantage of the estuary due to the Open Door Policy - Development of large cities like Dongguan, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou due to the rapidly growing population who need places to live. Change in Pearl River Delta from 1978 to 2003 - Development of canals for industry, using previous developments done for agriculture - Estuary got shallower due to removed vegetation leading to more soil erosion and sediment. - Far less vegetation due to urbanisation and industrialisation - Industry took advantage of river estuary for container ships, and the Open Door Policy - Development of large cities like Dongguan, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou, for the rapidly migrating population Guangdong globalisation benefits Provides opportunities for people to earn a living. Development of infrastructure in the province. Enhanced mobility in the whole of China. Globalisation benefits for Pearl River Delta Provides opportunities for people to earn a living. Development of infrastructure. Enhanced mobility in the whole of China. Why have many TNCs located in Guangdong 1. Ability for containerised shipping 2. Rative location to the port of Hong Kong 3. Cultural ethnic links throughout the region 4. Cheap labour in China 5. Supplier of China's government 6. Stable political environment What makes Guangdong attractive for TNCs? - Ability for containerised shipping - Relative location to the global port of Hong Kong - Hong Kong is trusted by global economies - Cultural ethnic links throughout the region - Cheap labour - Raw materials can be imported through Hong Knog - Support of China's government - Stable political environment Xintang 1. Denim capital of the world 2. One in three pairs of jeans sold globally is made in Xintang, in Guangdong 3. Produce 300 miion denim articles a year, and employ 220000 people. 4. Two-thirds of denim clothing made in China is from Xingtang Xintang denim - Denim capital of the world - One in three pairs of jeans sold globally is made in Xintang, in Guangdong - Produce 300 million denim products a year, and employ 220000 people - Two-thirds of denim clothing made in CHian is from Xintang Xintang negative environmental impacts 1. Water in the East River has turned blue and smells stale 2. The bleaching factories spill the water straight from dyeing into the river Xintang denim negative environmental effects - Water in the East river has turned blue and smells stale - The bleaching factories spill the water straight from dyeing into the river. Air pollution in China 1. 750000 Chinese die prematurely annually from air pollution- related respiratory diseases 2. Over 70% of China's energy comes from its highly sulphurous coal fields. 3. By 2006, 32.8 million people on China has COPD. 39 million also had asthma. 4. By 2001, 47 cities in China regularly measured air pollution levels of SO2, NO2, PM10, and forecasted an air pollution index. 5. Dust pollution is being tackled by planting a giant wind break to slow winds and stabilise the environment: a 'great green wall' of trees across more than 35 million hectares of land by 2050, especially in the west. Water pollution in China. 1. In 2007, 500 million people use contaminated water daily. 2. Water in 54% of the 7 million rivers of China is now considered unsafe for human consumption, a 12% increase since the early 2000s. 3. The main pollutants of the 7 river systems were organic pollution, petroleum, BOD, ammonia, nitrogen, permangonate, volatile phenols, and mercury. 4. 60% of China's marine pollution flows out of rivers, and is heavily focused around the mouth of the Yangtze River, in the Pearl River Delta, and the Liao River in Lioning Province. 5. 10 year plans to build waste water treatment plants and waste disposal plants in the area, costing $4.8m Development and the Environment Major environmental issues are linked with globalisation, including climate change and biodiversity loss. Large-scale global flows of cheap food are good news for European and North Americsn consumer nations. However, the transformation of 40% of the earth's terrestrial surface into productive agricultural land has led to habitat loss and biodiversity decline into many parts of the world's poorest regions, such as east Africa and Southern Asia. Intensive cash-cropping, cattle-ranching and aquaculture bring damaging environmental effects ranging from groundwater depletion to the removal of mangrove forest. Deprivation The degree to which an individual or areas is lacking services and amenities. Impacts of agriculture, food and drink TNCs operating in parts of Asia - Between 1990 and 2005, Vietnam lost 78% of its primary forests, despite being one of the world's top-ten biodiversity centres. - Mangrove swamp has been cleared to make space for prawn aquaculture: since 1980, there has been a 700% increase in production. - Forwst cover of the sugar-producing Philippine island of Negros has been reduced from over 90% to just 4%, with the two-thirds of this lost in the last 50 years - In drought-prone parts of Kerala, India, groundwater extraction for the bottled drinks industry has exhausted underground aquifers Dereliction Abandoned buildings and wasteland Kuznets curve argument Some geographers argue that in order for a countet or area to become developed, environmental degradation is essential. This will then 'peak' once an area becomes industrialised until finally the environment will improve as the country is now developed enough to 'afford to be green'. Deindistrialisation Long term decline in the manufacturing industry China's structural problem Most of its economic growth is based on industries exporting low-value products. The Chinese people have been used to providing a cheap labour pool, and - in spite of rising wages - many Chinese workers are not much better off than they were before industrialisation. An east-west divide now exists in China, as incomes decline the further inland you go. Steel Industry in Britain 1988: Privatisation by the Thatcher government creates British steel. UK steel workforce: 55000. 1999: British steel merges with Dutch company to create Corus. UK steel workforce 28900. 2007: Indian company Tata Steel buys Corus. UK steel workforce: 23000. 2016: Tata steel plants to sell its loss-making UK steel business China's economic inequalities Almost all of the major cities an industrial zones are located on the coast, and urban dwellers have higher incomes than rural. The 2010 Gini index for China as a whole was 47% - and its inequality is increasing. Steel Industry in Britain: Factors leading to decline 1. Relatively high electricity prices 2. The extra cost of climate change policies 3. Competition from China - Chinese steel is being sold in the UK at unrealistically low prices China's Environmental inequalities Chongqing on the Yangtze River is at the heart of economic developments around the Three Gorges Dam. 30 million people now live there. It's one of China's dirtiest cities, and its filthy air causes thousands of premature deaths. For a quarter of the time, the air quality doesn't reach the Chinese government's own safety standard. Megacity A metropolitan area with a total population in excess of 10 million people Methods of controlling globalisation 1. Limiting immigration 2. Censorship 3. Resource Nationalism 4. Trade Prorectionism World city (Or global city). A city with major political and economic power. Examples are New York and Paris UK position on immigration - five tier Visa system - tier 1: high value investors - tier 2: skilled workers needed - tier 3: low-skilled workers needed (not used yet) - tier 4: students - tier 5: temporary workers - Boris Johnson promotes a point based system Why are cities around the world increasing in size 1. Natural increase 2. Rural-urban migration EU policy on immigration free movement to live and work Lee's Model of Migration The decision is based on assessment of the positive and negative factors for the origin and destination. There may also be intervening obstacles making migration less straightforward USA position on migration shifting from family and employment based towards a point based system that prioritises qualifications Intervening obstacles to migration - The cost of migration - Ethnicity/religion (possible persecution in destination) - Accessibility (no transport) - Crossing difficult terrain (e.g. deserts/rain-forests) Australia position on migration - 28% were born overseas - mainly skilled workers from Asia - prioritises younger, work experience, English speakers - Asylum seekers sent into camps Lee's model: Origin Where migrants have come from (source) Japan position on migration Strict closed-door migration. Believe they are a homogenous population. Lee's model: Destination Where migrants arrive (host) Trade protectionism The deliberate attempt to limit imports or promote imports by putting up barriers to trade Remittances Money sent back to origin/source by migrants to support family Why do the US decide to do trade protectionism - Cheap Chinese steel was being dumped onto global markets at heavily subsidised prices - USA raises tariffs, however WTO rules restrict this - 25% tariff on steel, 10% on aluminium - supposed to lift profits for US steel makers - Cant be done by lics and nees who cant afford subsidies - WTO want to remove barriers to trade Migration benefits for Host - Fills particular skills shortages - New markets can develop for ethnic food bringing visible changes to the urban built environment - Economic migrants willingly do labouring work that locals may be reluctant to - Working migrants spend their wages on rent. benefiting landlords, and pay tax on legal earnings - Migrant remittances can contribute to national earnings significantly - Some migrants are ambitious entrepreneurs who establish new business employing others - Political parties change their policies to address public concerns Censorship in China - State controlled: where print publishing or broadcasting via TV and radio is run by official state media - State monitored: where overseas countries media is monitored and censored, including TV - 'Great firewall of China' prevents internet users from accessing BBC or Facebook services - Strict quota of 34 foreign films a year - Many people still celebrate western holidays like Chriatmas - Fines for using VPNs - Licenses needed to open websites and blogs - Internet in China is a self contained network Migrant benefits for source Migrants of the children may return, bringing new skills. Censorship in North Korea - North Korea's government controlled internet only has 28 websites - Korean central television is the state-run TV channel seen by North Koreans The network shows programmes praising Kim-Jong Il and Kim Il-Sung Migrant costs for host - Social tensions arise if citizens of the host country's believe migration has led to a lack of jobs or affordable housing - Local shortages of a primary school places due to natural increase among a youthful migrant community - Some government spending costs are transferred to the host regions - The economic loss of a generation of human resources, schooled at government expense, including key workers such as doctors, teachers and computer programmers Resource nationalism The growing tendency for groups or state governments to take measurements that ensure domestic industries and consumers have priority access to the national resources found within their borders. Has become prevalent due to TNCs exploiting resources in a country and taking profits for themselves Migrant cost for source - Reduced economic growth as consumption falls - Closure of some university courses due to a lack of students aged 18-21 - Less public spending on housing and health CONTINUED...