Week 1 - Lecture 1:
Cornerstones (essentials) of social research:
1. Defining research questions quantitative and qualitative
a) Quantitative research questions
- Descriptive questions What is the average number of days of
sick leave per year due to burn-out?
- Explanatory/comparative questions To what extent does the
average number of days to sick leave due to burn-out differ
across sector of employment?
focus on nomothetic (general) ‘causal’ relationships assuming a
causal relationship between 2 concepts
sector (independent variable) may predict sick-leave days
(dependent variable)
- nomothetic = establishing generalizations that apply to everyone
b) Qualitative research questions
- Questions about lived personal experience, understanding and
meaning of stories: ‘’How do employees who suffered from burn-
out last year link this to personal experiences at work before and
after their burn-out?’’
- Focus on idiographic causal relationship = deep explanation of a
single case (one person’s burn out story)
, 2. Theories propositions hypotheses
a) Proposition a general statement regarding a regularity in the
behavior or opinion of subjects
Example If an individual is good at a task, they perform it better when
others are present than when alone (social facilitation effect)
b) Why is this the case? theory provides an explanation for a
proposition or set of propositions (= no speculation) answer on
a why question
Example:
biological (nature): the presence of others activates physiological
triggers (stress)
psychological (nurture): people perform better when they believe they
are being watched/evaluated
c) How can we research that? hypotheses applying it in a
concrete situation
Example athletes (= the concrete situation)
H: athletes will perform better the more spectators there are
3. Induction vs. deduction
, a) Inductive research = theory construction
- Data/observation empirical generalizations (patterns)
theories
b) Deductive research = theory testing
- Theories hypotheses Observation
4. Concepts, variables and their relationship
a) Concepts (or constructs) = general/abstract description of a
social phenomenon cannot be directly measured
Example Job satisfaction, depression, health
b) Variable = empirical manifestation of a concept a scale that
measures the concept can be measured
Example income, age
Hypotheses = an expected relationship between two or more variables
that can be researched/tested
1. Bivariate hypothesis = the expected relationship between two
variables
(= the total effect)
X (independent variable) Y (dependent variable)
X affects Y
2. Multivariate hypothesis = the expected relationship between a
dependent variable (Y) and multiple independent variables
(X1, X2 ...)
a) The relative importance of independent variables (multiple
causality)
- Several X’s affect Y ( some effects are stronger than others)
o Example
- ‘’The likelihood of re-entering in the job market increases with
educational level (++) and decreases with the level of
unemployment benefit (-).
, The effect of education is stronger than the effect of the
unemployment benefit
b) (Complete) mediation = interpretation of a relationship
- The effect of the independent variable (X1) on the dependent
variable (Y) is indirect through its effect on intervening or
mediating variable (X2) that in turn
has an effect on the dependent (Y)
o Example
- ‘’The older a person the less likely the chance of re-entering the
labor market. This effect is fully mediated by the opportunity to
re-enter since the older a person is the less opportunities there
are (-) and by consequence the lower the chance of re-entering
(+).’’
- X3 (age) X4 (opportunity to re-enter labor market) Y (re-
entering)
Partial mediation = direct + indirect
effect
- The impact of X3 on Y is only
partially accounted for by a
third variable (X4)
c) Moderation interaction hypotheses
changing the strength or direction of the relationship
Cornerstones (essentials) of social research:
1. Defining research questions quantitative and qualitative
a) Quantitative research questions
- Descriptive questions What is the average number of days of
sick leave per year due to burn-out?
- Explanatory/comparative questions To what extent does the
average number of days to sick leave due to burn-out differ
across sector of employment?
focus on nomothetic (general) ‘causal’ relationships assuming a
causal relationship between 2 concepts
sector (independent variable) may predict sick-leave days
(dependent variable)
- nomothetic = establishing generalizations that apply to everyone
b) Qualitative research questions
- Questions about lived personal experience, understanding and
meaning of stories: ‘’How do employees who suffered from burn-
out last year link this to personal experiences at work before and
after their burn-out?’’
- Focus on idiographic causal relationship = deep explanation of a
single case (one person’s burn out story)
, 2. Theories propositions hypotheses
a) Proposition a general statement regarding a regularity in the
behavior or opinion of subjects
Example If an individual is good at a task, they perform it better when
others are present than when alone (social facilitation effect)
b) Why is this the case? theory provides an explanation for a
proposition or set of propositions (= no speculation) answer on
a why question
Example:
biological (nature): the presence of others activates physiological
triggers (stress)
psychological (nurture): people perform better when they believe they
are being watched/evaluated
c) How can we research that? hypotheses applying it in a
concrete situation
Example athletes (= the concrete situation)
H: athletes will perform better the more spectators there are
3. Induction vs. deduction
, a) Inductive research = theory construction
- Data/observation empirical generalizations (patterns)
theories
b) Deductive research = theory testing
- Theories hypotheses Observation
4. Concepts, variables and their relationship
a) Concepts (or constructs) = general/abstract description of a
social phenomenon cannot be directly measured
Example Job satisfaction, depression, health
b) Variable = empirical manifestation of a concept a scale that
measures the concept can be measured
Example income, age
Hypotheses = an expected relationship between two or more variables
that can be researched/tested
1. Bivariate hypothesis = the expected relationship between two
variables
(= the total effect)
X (independent variable) Y (dependent variable)
X affects Y
2. Multivariate hypothesis = the expected relationship between a
dependent variable (Y) and multiple independent variables
(X1, X2 ...)
a) The relative importance of independent variables (multiple
causality)
- Several X’s affect Y ( some effects are stronger than others)
o Example
- ‘’The likelihood of re-entering in the job market increases with
educational level (++) and decreases with the level of
unemployment benefit (-).
, The effect of education is stronger than the effect of the
unemployment benefit
b) (Complete) mediation = interpretation of a relationship
- The effect of the independent variable (X1) on the dependent
variable (Y) is indirect through its effect on intervening or
mediating variable (X2) that in turn
has an effect on the dependent (Y)
o Example
- ‘’The older a person the less likely the chance of re-entering the
labor market. This effect is fully mediated by the opportunity to
re-enter since the older a person is the less opportunities there
are (-) and by consequence the lower the chance of re-entering
(+).’’
- X3 (age) X4 (opportunity to re-enter labor market) Y (re-
entering)
Partial mediation = direct + indirect
effect
- The impact of X3 on Y is only
partially accounted for by a
third variable (X4)
c) Moderation interaction hypotheses
changing the strength or direction of the relationship
