Master Social, Health and Organisational Psychology
Utrecht University
Summary
Communication: effective interaction in theory and practice
,Lecture axioms
Paper Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Some tentative axioms of
communication [Chapter 2]. In Pragmatics of human communication: A study of
interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes (pp. 48-71). New York: Norton.
Pragmatics of human communication
● Syntactics: transmitting information
● Semantics: meaning of communication
● Pragmatics: behavioral effects of communication (=psychology)
Five axioma’s of communication
1. One cannot not communicate
● Every behavior in the presence of others is a form of communication, whether
intentional or not. Silence, body language, facial expressions, and even lack of
response convey a message.
● Even when someone tries to not communicate, people will get a message out of it.
2. Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect such that the latter
classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication
● Communication conveys not only information (content) but also how the sender
views the relationship with the receiver (relationship). The relationship aspect
often influences how the content is interpreted and tells the receiver how to
understand the content
● Example: Saying “Can you close the window?” can be a neutral request
(content), but if said sarcastically, it can imply annoyance or authority
(relationship).
3. The nature of a relationship is contingent upon the punctuation of the communicational
sequences between the communicants
● In any interaction, people interpret and organize the flow of communication in
their own way. Each person decides what counts as the “cause” and what counts
as the “effect” in a conversation. For example, one person might say, “I only nag
because you don’t talk to me,” while the other says, “I don’t talk because you
nag.” Both see their behavior as a reaction to the other, which can create a cycle of
misunderstanding and conflict.
, ● Communication is not a simple chain of actions and reactions—it depends on how
each participant interprets and punctuates the sequence of events. Misaligned
punctuation can lead to disagreements and problems in relationships.
4. Human beings communicate both digitally (verbal) and analogically (non-verbal)
● Digital communication = words, symbols, or language with precise meaning.
● Analogical communication = nonverbal cues like tone, gestures, facial
expressions, and context, which convey emotions or relational meaning.
Example: Saying “I’m fine” (digital) while frowning and crossing your arms
(analogical) may convey the opposite of the words.
5. All communicational interchanges are either symmetrical or complementary,
depending on whether they are based on equality or difference
● Symmetrical communication = partners mirror each other and interact as equals
(e.g., friendly debate).
● Complementary communication = partners’ behaviors are different but fit
together, often in hierarchical ways (e.g., teacher–student, parent–child).
● Example:
● Symmetrical: Two friends competing to finish each other’s sentences.
● Complementary: A manager gives instructions and the employee follows
them.
, Lecture mindsets
Mindsets and self-evaluation: How beliefs about intelligence can create a preference for
growth over defensiveness [Chapter 8]. In S. B. Kaufman (Ed.), The Complexity of
Greatness: Beyond Talent or practice (pp. 119-134). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Key Concepts
Fixed Mindset (entity theory of intelligence)
Intelligence (or ability) is seen as innate and unchangeable.
Fixed mindset students adopt performance goals, so looking smart is most
important.
Success = proof of ability; failure = evidence of lack of intelligence.
Leads to defensiveness: avoiding challenges, fearing mistakes, rejecting critical
feedback.
When anticipating failure, they avoid feedback.
Strategies after failure: helplessness, self-serving bias, downward comparison.
They will spend less time on the subject or try to cheat (because they can not get
better)
Growth Mindset (incremental theory of intelligence)
Intelligence is viewed as developable through effort, strategies, and learning.
Growth mindset students adopt learning goals.
Mistakes and challenges are opportunities for improvement.
Leads to growth orientation: curiosity, persistence, and resilience after setbacks.
When anticipating failure, they assume they have not yet mastered the relevant
skill and keep going
Strategies after failure: resilient, mastery-oriented, upward comparison. They are
motivated to work harder and spent more time on studying.
Self-Evaluation & Motivation
Fixed mindset → focus on self-validation (“Am I smart enough?”).
Growth mindset → focus on self-development (“What can I learn from this?”).
This shapes task choices: growth-oriented individuals take on harder, learning-rich
challenges, while fixed-mindset individuals stick to safer, ego-protective tasks.
Impact on Performance & Relationships
Growth mindset fosters collaboration, openness to feedback, and sustained effort.
Utrecht University
Summary
Communication: effective interaction in theory and practice
,Lecture axioms
Paper Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. H., & Jackson, D. D. (1967). Some tentative axioms of
communication [Chapter 2]. In Pragmatics of human communication: A study of
interactional patterns, pathologies, and paradoxes (pp. 48-71). New York: Norton.
Pragmatics of human communication
● Syntactics: transmitting information
● Semantics: meaning of communication
● Pragmatics: behavioral effects of communication (=psychology)
Five axioma’s of communication
1. One cannot not communicate
● Every behavior in the presence of others is a form of communication, whether
intentional or not. Silence, body language, facial expressions, and even lack of
response convey a message.
● Even when someone tries to not communicate, people will get a message out of it.
2. Every communication has a content and a relationship aspect such that the latter
classifies the former and is therefore a metacommunication
● Communication conveys not only information (content) but also how the sender
views the relationship with the receiver (relationship). The relationship aspect
often influences how the content is interpreted and tells the receiver how to
understand the content
● Example: Saying “Can you close the window?” can be a neutral request
(content), but if said sarcastically, it can imply annoyance or authority
(relationship).
3. The nature of a relationship is contingent upon the punctuation of the communicational
sequences between the communicants
● In any interaction, people interpret and organize the flow of communication in
their own way. Each person decides what counts as the “cause” and what counts
as the “effect” in a conversation. For example, one person might say, “I only nag
because you don’t talk to me,” while the other says, “I don’t talk because you
nag.” Both see their behavior as a reaction to the other, which can create a cycle of
misunderstanding and conflict.
, ● Communication is not a simple chain of actions and reactions—it depends on how
each participant interprets and punctuates the sequence of events. Misaligned
punctuation can lead to disagreements and problems in relationships.
4. Human beings communicate both digitally (verbal) and analogically (non-verbal)
● Digital communication = words, symbols, or language with precise meaning.
● Analogical communication = nonverbal cues like tone, gestures, facial
expressions, and context, which convey emotions or relational meaning.
Example: Saying “I’m fine” (digital) while frowning and crossing your arms
(analogical) may convey the opposite of the words.
5. All communicational interchanges are either symmetrical or complementary,
depending on whether they are based on equality or difference
● Symmetrical communication = partners mirror each other and interact as equals
(e.g., friendly debate).
● Complementary communication = partners’ behaviors are different but fit
together, often in hierarchical ways (e.g., teacher–student, parent–child).
● Example:
● Symmetrical: Two friends competing to finish each other’s sentences.
● Complementary: A manager gives instructions and the employee follows
them.
, Lecture mindsets
Mindsets and self-evaluation: How beliefs about intelligence can create a preference for
growth over defensiveness [Chapter 8]. In S. B. Kaufman (Ed.), The Complexity of
Greatness: Beyond Talent or practice (pp. 119-134). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Key Concepts
Fixed Mindset (entity theory of intelligence)
Intelligence (or ability) is seen as innate and unchangeable.
Fixed mindset students adopt performance goals, so looking smart is most
important.
Success = proof of ability; failure = evidence of lack of intelligence.
Leads to defensiveness: avoiding challenges, fearing mistakes, rejecting critical
feedback.
When anticipating failure, they avoid feedback.
Strategies after failure: helplessness, self-serving bias, downward comparison.
They will spend less time on the subject or try to cheat (because they can not get
better)
Growth Mindset (incremental theory of intelligence)
Intelligence is viewed as developable through effort, strategies, and learning.
Growth mindset students adopt learning goals.
Mistakes and challenges are opportunities for improvement.
Leads to growth orientation: curiosity, persistence, and resilience after setbacks.
When anticipating failure, they assume they have not yet mastered the relevant
skill and keep going
Strategies after failure: resilient, mastery-oriented, upward comparison. They are
motivated to work harder and spent more time on studying.
Self-Evaluation & Motivation
Fixed mindset → focus on self-validation (“Am I smart enough?”).
Growth mindset → focus on self-development (“What can I learn from this?”).
This shapes task choices: growth-oriented individuals take on harder, learning-rich
challenges, while fixed-mindset individuals stick to safer, ego-protective tasks.
Impact on Performance & Relationships
Growth mindset fosters collaboration, openness to feedback, and sustained effort.
