INTRODUCTION TO
PSYCHOLOGY
Gritter, A. (Alicia, Student B-PSY)
,Inhoud
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology........................................................................................ 6
1.1 In the beginning: Wundt, Titchener and James.................................................................6
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalyse and Behaviorism...........................7
1.3 Modern Perspectives......................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization...................................................9
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking.......................................................................10
1.6 The Scientific Approach................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Descriptive Methods........................................................................................................ 11
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships................................................................................. 12
1.9: The Experiment.............................................................................................................. 12
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects.........................................................13
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People............................................................14
1.12 Animal Research........................................................................................................... 15
1.13 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Critical Thinking and Social Media....................15
Leerdoelen chapter 1............................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception....................................................................................... 16
3.1 Transduction................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Sensory Thresholds......................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Habituation and Sensory Adaption.................................................................................. 17
3.4 Light and the Eye............................................................................................................ 17
3.5 The Visual Pathway......................................................................................................... 18
3.6 Perception of Color.......................................................................................................... 19
3.7 Sound Waves and the Ear............................................................................................... 20
3.8 Perceiving Pitch............................................................................................................... 21
3.9 Types of Hearing Impairments........................................................................................ 22
3.10 Gustation: How We Taste the World..............................................................................22
3.11 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction...................................................................................... 23
3.12 Somesthetic Sense........................................................................................................ 24
3.13 Body Movement and Position........................................................................................ 25
3.14 How We Organize Our Perceptions................................................................................25
3.15 Depth Perception........................................................................................................... 26
3.16 Perceptual Illusions....................................................................................................... 27
3.17 Applying Psychology: to Everyday Life: Using Your Senses to Be More Mindful............27
Leerdoelen chapter 3............................................................................................................ 28
Chapter 5: Learning.................................................................................................................. 29
5.1 Definition of Learning...................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs....................................................................................... 29
5.3 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior.........................................................30
1
, 5.4 The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner...................................................................30
5.5 The Concept of Reinforcement........................................................................................ 31
5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is so Seductive......................31
5.7 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning............................................................32
5.8 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning...........................................................................32
5.9 Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification.......................33
5.10 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning.............................................................33
5.11 Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning........................................................................34
5.12 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness.....................................................34
5.13 Bandura and the Bobo Doll........................................................................................... 34
5.14 The Four Elements of Observational Learning...............................................................35
5.15 Conditioning in the Real World...................................................................................... 35
Leerdoelen chapter 5:........................................................................................................... 35
Chapter 6: Memory................................................................................................................... 36
6.1 Three Processes of Memory............................................................................................ 36
6.2 Models of Memory........................................................................................................... 36
6.3 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Tasks........................................................37
6.4 Short-Term Memory........................................................................................................ 37
6.5 Long-Term Memory......................................................................................................... 38
6.6 Retrieval Cues................................................................................................................. 38
6.7 Recall and Recognition.................................................................................................... 38
6.8 Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories.......................................................................39
6.9 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories?
.............................................................................................................................................. 39
6.10 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve...........................................................................40
6.11 Reasons We Forget....................................................................................................... 40
6.12 The Biological Bases of Memory.................................................................................... 40
6.13 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia..........................................................................41
6.14 Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable................................41
Leerdoelen chapter 6............................................................................................................ 41
Chapter 7: Cognition; Thinking Intelligence, and Language.....................................................42
7.1 Mental Imagery............................................................................................................... 42
7.2 Concepts and Prototypes................................................................................................ 43
7.3 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies...........................................................44
7.4 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making.....................................................44
7.5 Creativity......................................................................................................................... 45
7.6 Theories of Intelligence................................................................................................... 45
7.7 Measuring Intelligence.................................................................................................... 46
7.8 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?.........................................................................46
7.9 Individual Differences in Intelligence............................................................................... 47
2
, 7.10 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence..........................................................47
7.11 The Levels of Language Analysis...................................................................................48
7.12 Development of Language............................................................................................ 48
7.13 The Relationship between Language and Thought’.......................................................48
7.14 Animal Studies in Language.......................................................................................... 49
7.15 Recognizing Cognitive Biases........................................................................................ 49
Leerdoelen chapter 7............................................................................................................ 49
Chapter 8: Development Across the Life Span.........................................................................50
8.1 Research Designs............................................................................................................ 50
8.2 Nature and Nurture......................................................................................................... 50
8.3 The Basic Building Blocks of Development......................................................................51
8.4 Fertilization..................................................................................................................... 51
8.5 Three Stages of Development......................................................................................... 52
8.6 Physical Development..................................................................................................... 52
8.7 Cognitive Development................................................................................................... 53
8.8 Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................. 54
8.9 Physical Development..................................................................................................... 55
8.10 Cognitive Development................................................................................................. 55
8.11 Psychosocial Development............................................................................................ 56
8.12 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It........................................................................56
8.13 Cognitive Development................................................................................................. 57
8.4 Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................. 57
8.15 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging...............................................................58
8.16 Stages Of Death and Dying........................................................................................... 58
8.17 Death and Dying in Other Cultures...............................................................................58
Leerdoelen chapter 8............................................................................................................ 59
Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion.......................................................................................... 59
9.1 Defining Motivation......................................................................................................... 59
9.2 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation..............................................................60
9.3 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs..............................................60
9.4 Arousal and Incentive Approaches..................................................................................61
9.5 Humanistic Approaches................................................................................................... 61
9.6 Physiological and Social Components of Hunger.............................................................62
9.7 Obesity............................................................................................................................ 62
9.8 The Three Elements of Emotion...................................................................................... 63
9.9 Early Theories of Emotion............................................................................................... 63
9.10 Cognitive Theories of Emotion...................................................................................... 64
9.11 When Motivation Is Not Enough.................................................................................... 64
Leerdoelen chapter 9............................................................................................................ 64
Chapter 11: Stress and Health................................................................................................. 66
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PSYCHOLOGY
Gritter, A. (Alicia, Student B-PSY)
,Inhoud
Chapter 1: The Science of Psychology........................................................................................ 6
1.1 In the beginning: Wundt, Titchener and James.................................................................6
1.2 Three Influential Approaches: Gestalt, Psychoanalyse and Behaviorism...........................7
1.3 Modern Perspectives......................................................................................................... 8
1.4 Psychological Professionals and Areas of Specialization...................................................9
1.5 Thinking Critically About Critical Thinking.......................................................................10
1.6 The Scientific Approach................................................................................................... 10
1.7 Descriptive Methods........................................................................................................ 11
1.8 Correlations: Finding Relationships................................................................................. 12
1.9: The Experiment.............................................................................................................. 12
1.10 Experimental Hazards and Controlling for Effects.........................................................13
1.11 The Guidelines for Doing Research with People............................................................14
1.12 Animal Research........................................................................................................... 15
1.13 Applying Psychology to Everyday Life: Critical Thinking and Social Media....................15
Leerdoelen chapter 1............................................................................................................ 15
Chapter 3: Sensation and Perception....................................................................................... 16
3.1 Transduction................................................................................................................... 16
3.2 Sensory Thresholds......................................................................................................... 16
3.3 Habituation and Sensory Adaption.................................................................................. 17
3.4 Light and the Eye............................................................................................................ 17
3.5 The Visual Pathway......................................................................................................... 18
3.6 Perception of Color.......................................................................................................... 19
3.7 Sound Waves and the Ear............................................................................................... 20
3.8 Perceiving Pitch............................................................................................................... 21
3.9 Types of Hearing Impairments........................................................................................ 22
3.10 Gustation: How We Taste the World..............................................................................22
3.11 The Sense of Scents: Olfaction...................................................................................... 23
3.12 Somesthetic Sense........................................................................................................ 24
3.13 Body Movement and Position........................................................................................ 25
3.14 How We Organize Our Perceptions................................................................................25
3.15 Depth Perception........................................................................................................... 26
3.16 Perceptual Illusions....................................................................................................... 27
3.17 Applying Psychology: to Everyday Life: Using Your Senses to Be More Mindful............27
Leerdoelen chapter 3............................................................................................................ 28
Chapter 5: Learning.................................................................................................................. 29
5.1 Definition of Learning...................................................................................................... 29
5.2 Pavlov and the Salivating Dogs....................................................................................... 29
5.3 Classical Conditioning Applied to Human Behavior.........................................................30
1
, 5.4 The Contributions of Thorndike and Skinner...................................................................30
5.5 The Concept of Reinforcement........................................................................................ 31
5.6 Schedules of Reinforcement: Why the One-Armed Bandit Is so Seductive......................31
5.7 The Role of Punishment in Operant Conditioning............................................................32
5.8 Other Aspects of Operant Conditioning...........................................................................32
5.9 Application of Operant Conditioning: Shaping and Behavior Modification.......................33
5.10 Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning.............................................................33
5.11 Köhler’s Smart Chimp: Insight Learning........................................................................34
5.12 Seligman’s Depressed Dogs: Learned Helplessness.....................................................34
5.13 Bandura and the Bobo Doll........................................................................................... 34
5.14 The Four Elements of Observational Learning...............................................................35
5.15 Conditioning in the Real World...................................................................................... 35
Leerdoelen chapter 5:........................................................................................................... 35
Chapter 6: Memory................................................................................................................... 36
6.1 Three Processes of Memory............................................................................................ 36
6.2 Models of Memory........................................................................................................... 36
6.3 Sensory Memory: Why Do People Do Double Tasks........................................................37
6.4 Short-Term Memory........................................................................................................ 37
6.5 Long-Term Memory......................................................................................................... 38
6.6 Retrieval Cues................................................................................................................. 38
6.7 Recall and Recognition.................................................................................................... 38
6.8 Automatic Encoding: Flashbulb Memories.......................................................................39
6.9 The Reconstructive Nature of Long-Term Memory Retrieval: How Reliable Are Memories?
.............................................................................................................................................. 39
6.10 Ebbinghaus and the Forgetting Curve...........................................................................40
6.11 Reasons We Forget....................................................................................................... 40
6.12 The Biological Bases of Memory.................................................................................... 40
6.13 When Memory Fails: Organic Amnesia..........................................................................41
6.14 Using Elaborative Rehearsal to Make Memories More Memorable................................41
Leerdoelen chapter 6............................................................................................................ 41
Chapter 7: Cognition; Thinking Intelligence, and Language.....................................................42
7.1 Mental Imagery............................................................................................................... 42
7.2 Concepts and Prototypes................................................................................................ 43
7.3 Problem-Solving and Decision-Making Strategies...........................................................44
7.4 Problems with Problem Solving and Decision Making.....................................................44
7.5 Creativity......................................................................................................................... 45
7.6 Theories of Intelligence................................................................................................... 45
7.7 Measuring Intelligence.................................................................................................... 46
7.8 Test Construction: Good Test, Bad Test?.........................................................................46
7.9 Individual Differences in Intelligence............................................................................... 47
2
, 7.10 The Nature/Nurture Issue Regarding Intelligence..........................................................47
7.11 The Levels of Language Analysis...................................................................................48
7.12 Development of Language............................................................................................ 48
7.13 The Relationship between Language and Thought’.......................................................48
7.14 Animal Studies in Language.......................................................................................... 49
7.15 Recognizing Cognitive Biases........................................................................................ 49
Leerdoelen chapter 7............................................................................................................ 49
Chapter 8: Development Across the Life Span.........................................................................50
8.1 Research Designs............................................................................................................ 50
8.2 Nature and Nurture......................................................................................................... 50
8.3 The Basic Building Blocks of Development......................................................................51
8.4 Fertilization..................................................................................................................... 51
8.5 Three Stages of Development......................................................................................... 52
8.6 Physical Development..................................................................................................... 52
8.7 Cognitive Development................................................................................................... 53
8.8 Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................. 54
8.9 Physical Development..................................................................................................... 55
8.10 Cognitive Development................................................................................................. 55
8.11 Psychosocial Development............................................................................................ 56
8.12 Physical Development: Use It or Lose It........................................................................56
8.13 Cognitive Development................................................................................................. 57
8.4 Psychosocial Development.............................................................................................. 57
8.15 Theories of Physical and Psychological Aging...............................................................58
8.16 Stages Of Death and Dying........................................................................................... 58
8.17 Death and Dying in Other Cultures...............................................................................58
Leerdoelen chapter 8............................................................................................................ 59
Chapter 9: Motivation and Emotion.......................................................................................... 59
9.1 Defining Motivation......................................................................................................... 59
9.2 Early Approaches to Understanding Motivation..............................................................60
9.3 Different Strokes for Different Folks: Psychological Needs..............................................60
9.4 Arousal and Incentive Approaches..................................................................................61
9.5 Humanistic Approaches................................................................................................... 61
9.6 Physiological and Social Components of Hunger.............................................................62
9.7 Obesity............................................................................................................................ 62
9.8 The Three Elements of Emotion...................................................................................... 63
9.9 Early Theories of Emotion............................................................................................... 63
9.10 Cognitive Theories of Emotion...................................................................................... 64
9.11 When Motivation Is Not Enough.................................................................................... 64
Leerdoelen chapter 9............................................................................................................ 64
Chapter 11: Stress and Health................................................................................................. 66
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