Research Methods
Experimental Methods
→ Laboratory Experiments:
- Experiments conducted in an artificial setting where all extraneous variables are
controlled.
- The only variable that changes is the one manipulated by the researcher.
- IV is manipulated.
- Artificial/ controlled environment
- Eg: Loftus and Palmer Eyewitness Testimony
→ Field Experiments:
- An experiment conducted in a natural environment where the IV has been
manipulated by the researcher
- IV is manipulated (eg decide time of day)
- Natural and artificial environment
- Yuille Cutshall Eye witness testimony
→ Natural Experiments:
- Experiments measure a naturally occurring event in the environment enabling the
researcher to investigate the effects of events that it is difficult to manipulate
- Eg: children’s experience of war, likelihood of miscarriage in early pregnancy in
women who live in houses under the flight path of airports
- Naturally occurring event for participants n
- Natural and artificial environment
- Evans et Al Munich Airport Study
→ Quasi-Experiments:
- Measures a naturally occurring difference between people
- Eg: Gender, IQ, existence of a mental disorder
- Naturally occurring individual differences
- Natural and controlled environment
- Griffiths Fruit machine gambling
, Observational Techniques
→ Naturalistic Observations:
• Used to identify a range of behaviours some of which may be chosen as the focus
of later research using the same or other methods
• Consist of the researcher watching subjects in their normal environment, outside
the lab
• Behaviour observed in a lab may also be considered to constitute naturalistic
observation if the behaviour being observed is not being manipulated in any way
- Overt = carried out where the researcher may be seen
- Covert = carried out where the researcher is not obvious
→ Participant observations
- The research joins in and becomes part of the group they’re studying to get a deeper
insight into their lives
- These can be covert (Researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a
genuine member of the group) or overt (the researcher reveals his or her true
identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe)
- Non participant observations
Self-Report Techniques
→ Questionaiires
• Used to collect quantitative data have close-ended items that are fairly limited in the
range of responses available to the respondent
• Used to assess people’s attitudes to certain things or investigate the occurrence of
certain personality attributes include graded answers where certain answers
generate numerical scores = produces quantitative data
• Qualitative data can be generated using questionnaires where the questions used
are open ended = providing more depth and insight into the reasons behind why
people think and behave the way they do
- This data can be difficult to analyse and the range of responses produced may not be
able to be analysed using content analytical techniques
- Open ended questions on a questionnaire form may not fit the space available on a
form for the response, but would limit the respondent to a brief but possibly
pertinent answer.
- Closed ended questions = easier to turn into quantitative data
- Closed-ended and open ended items may be combined on a questionnaire by
providing a space for an “other” option
, → Interviews
- Face to face method used to collect quantitative or qualitative data
- Used to form the basis of a case study or may be used to deliver a questionnaire or
survey
- Must be carefully planned and piloted = ensures the info gathered is relevnt to the
area of study
- Interviews can consider sensitive issues that may be personal and a participant might
not want to divulge if more impersonal methods were used
- Interviews allow the interviewer to obtain lots of info from he participant and make
sure they understand the answer given
- They can ask questions and clarify anything they don’t understand
• Structured Interviews
- Allows the interviewer to focus their questions on the topic that is of specific interest
to them
- Answers can be analysed easily because everyone’s asked the same question
- Irrelevant info not gathered
• Unstructured interviews
- A wide range of topics can be covered and the investigator can investigate issues
they hadn’t previously considered
- Many generate completely irrelevant answers that will provide no useful
information, interesting answers may be followed up to provide more depth
Correlations
Correlation study - a quantitative non-experimental method in which 2 or more quantitative
co variables that attempts to determine if there is a correlation between them.
It is a statistical method for analaysing whether there is a correlation between two co
variables
→ Correlation analysis between co variables
- Indicates whether there is a correlation between 2 co variables and describe the
strength and direction of that correlation
- Correlations may be positive (both variables increase or decrease at the same time)
or negative (one variable increases and the other decreases)
→ Correlation coefficient
- The calculation that indicates the strength and direction of any correlation between two
co-variables
- Numerical value at which the correlation achieves significance depends on size of the
sample: larger the sample, lower the calculated value
- Represented by a value less than 1
- Closer to +1 = stronger correlation
Experimental Methods
→ Laboratory Experiments:
- Experiments conducted in an artificial setting where all extraneous variables are
controlled.
- The only variable that changes is the one manipulated by the researcher.
- IV is manipulated.
- Artificial/ controlled environment
- Eg: Loftus and Palmer Eyewitness Testimony
→ Field Experiments:
- An experiment conducted in a natural environment where the IV has been
manipulated by the researcher
- IV is manipulated (eg decide time of day)
- Natural and artificial environment
- Yuille Cutshall Eye witness testimony
→ Natural Experiments:
- Experiments measure a naturally occurring event in the environment enabling the
researcher to investigate the effects of events that it is difficult to manipulate
- Eg: children’s experience of war, likelihood of miscarriage in early pregnancy in
women who live in houses under the flight path of airports
- Naturally occurring event for participants n
- Natural and artificial environment
- Evans et Al Munich Airport Study
→ Quasi-Experiments:
- Measures a naturally occurring difference between people
- Eg: Gender, IQ, existence of a mental disorder
- Naturally occurring individual differences
- Natural and controlled environment
- Griffiths Fruit machine gambling
, Observational Techniques
→ Naturalistic Observations:
• Used to identify a range of behaviours some of which may be chosen as the focus
of later research using the same or other methods
• Consist of the researcher watching subjects in their normal environment, outside
the lab
• Behaviour observed in a lab may also be considered to constitute naturalistic
observation if the behaviour being observed is not being manipulated in any way
- Overt = carried out where the researcher may be seen
- Covert = carried out where the researcher is not obvious
→ Participant observations
- The research joins in and becomes part of the group they’re studying to get a deeper
insight into their lives
- These can be covert (Researcher takes a false identity and role, usually posing as a
genuine member of the group) or overt (the researcher reveals his or her true
identity and purpose to the group and asks permission to observe)
- Non participant observations
Self-Report Techniques
→ Questionaiires
• Used to collect quantitative data have close-ended items that are fairly limited in the
range of responses available to the respondent
• Used to assess people’s attitudes to certain things or investigate the occurrence of
certain personality attributes include graded answers where certain answers
generate numerical scores = produces quantitative data
• Qualitative data can be generated using questionnaires where the questions used
are open ended = providing more depth and insight into the reasons behind why
people think and behave the way they do
- This data can be difficult to analyse and the range of responses produced may not be
able to be analysed using content analytical techniques
- Open ended questions on a questionnaire form may not fit the space available on a
form for the response, but would limit the respondent to a brief but possibly
pertinent answer.
- Closed ended questions = easier to turn into quantitative data
- Closed-ended and open ended items may be combined on a questionnaire by
providing a space for an “other” option
, → Interviews
- Face to face method used to collect quantitative or qualitative data
- Used to form the basis of a case study or may be used to deliver a questionnaire or
survey
- Must be carefully planned and piloted = ensures the info gathered is relevnt to the
area of study
- Interviews can consider sensitive issues that may be personal and a participant might
not want to divulge if more impersonal methods were used
- Interviews allow the interviewer to obtain lots of info from he participant and make
sure they understand the answer given
- They can ask questions and clarify anything they don’t understand
• Structured Interviews
- Allows the interviewer to focus their questions on the topic that is of specific interest
to them
- Answers can be analysed easily because everyone’s asked the same question
- Irrelevant info not gathered
• Unstructured interviews
- A wide range of topics can be covered and the investigator can investigate issues
they hadn’t previously considered
- Many generate completely irrelevant answers that will provide no useful
information, interesting answers may be followed up to provide more depth
Correlations
Correlation study - a quantitative non-experimental method in which 2 or more quantitative
co variables that attempts to determine if there is a correlation between them.
It is a statistical method for analaysing whether there is a correlation between two co
variables
→ Correlation analysis between co variables
- Indicates whether there is a correlation between 2 co variables and describe the
strength and direction of that correlation
- Correlations may be positive (both variables increase or decrease at the same time)
or negative (one variable increases and the other decreases)
→ Correlation coefficient
- The calculation that indicates the strength and direction of any correlation between two
co-variables
- Numerical value at which the correlation achieves significance depends on size of the
sample: larger the sample, lower the calculated value
- Represented by a value less than 1
- Closer to +1 = stronger correlation
