Theories of Leadership and Management (6314M0229Y)
Lecture week 1: MECHANISMS OF LEADERSHIP
Social learning theory: we learn by observing and imitating other people’s behaviour
• People can learn new information and behavior by watching other people
• Observational learning: learning from observing a role model
Two types of observational learning
1. Inhibition (= remming): response that you would normally enact but you learn to
inhibit/withhold that particular response
2. Disinhibition (= ontremming): response that you would normally not do but you see someone
elso doing it, so you enact on it too
Necessary conditions for social learning
• Attention: behavior is noticed
• Retention: how well behaviour is remembered
• Reproduction: ability to perform behavior
• Motivation (reinforcement): will to perform behavior
Social Identity theory: how people relate to one another in group/ team settings
• Person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership
• Groups give us a sense of belonging to the social world
• Groups are source of pride and self-esteem
• When social identity is salient, people act as representatives of a group rather than individuals
Social categorization: the act of putting oneself and others into categories
• In-group: yours
• Out-group: others
Social identification: when you absorb your in-group’s norms, values and culture. You notice
difference between in and out-group. Group becomes part of your social identity
Social comparison: to boost own’s self esteem, one thinks of their ingroup as better and superior to
outgroup à positive distinctiveness
Reciprocity principle: we pay back what we receive from others
• Cheating model: belief that others are taking advantage of us – tracking costs and benefits to
keep in balance with others
Perceived organisational support: degree to which employees believe that organisation values their
contributions and cares about their well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs
Social exchange thoery
• Social interaction is shaped by a reciprocal exchange of tangible and non-tangible rewards
• Every interaction can be understood as a form of exchange in which each participant gives the
other more than he had himself possessed
• Bridging theory between studies of interactions between individuals, and studies that
examined the collectivist or structural dimensions of society – economic systems, political
institutions, belief systems
,Core assumptions
• Social actors engage in activities as a means of obtaining desired goals
• All social activities involve some cost to the actor – time, energy, other resources
• Social actors seek to economise their activities by keeping costs below rewards
Six types of social rewards
1. Personal attraction
2. Social acceptance
3. Social approval
4. Instrumental services
5. Respect/prestige
6. Compliance/power
Three types of social costs
1. Investment: in time and effort to develop skills that will be used to rewards others
2. Direct costs: form of a resource given to another in exchange for something else
3. Opportunity costs: loss of rewards which would have been available elsewhere
Leader member exchange (LMX): leadership is a process that is focused on the interactions between
leader and subordinates
Social exchange theory
Relationship phases
• Stranger phase: roles are highly scripted and most exchanges are based on organizational
rules and hierarchies. Little trust at play
• Acquaintance phase: leader offers subordinated improved benefits. Attempting to feel out the
subordinates and see what they are motivated by. Trust develops. Subordinates begin to focus
less on self-interest and more on group goals.
• Partnership phase: mutual and high quality exchanges. Favors are provided for each other
under mutual trust. Subordinate focuses on group goals and moves beyond self-interst.
Self-efficacy: self perception of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations
• Determines whether we think we can meet the challenges necessary and how long we will
persevere in the face of obstacles
• Affects every aspect of human striving. Shapes the beliefs a person holds regarding their
power to affect situations
We avoid tasks where self-efficacy is low and seek out tasks where self efficacy is high.
When self-efficacy is too far above abilities, we set ourselves up to failures
When self-efficacy is too far below abilities, we don’t learn and develop
Optimal level is little above ability – encourages striving with opportunities for success à zone of
proximal development
Learned helplessness: person suffers from a sense of powerlessness from persistent failure to succeed
(example elephant and dog)
Expectancy theory of motivation: people will work hard and strive towards goals that are achievable
Path goal theory: define the goal, clarify the path, remove obstacles and provide support
, Psychological safety: comfort admitting mistakes à learning from failure à everyone openly shares
ideas à better innovation & decision-making
How to create it?
• Approach conflict as a collaborator and not an adversary
• Speak human to human
• Anticipate reactions and plan counter moves
• Replace blame with curiosity
• Ask for feedback on delivery
• Measure psychological safety
Psychological danger: fear of admitting mistakes à blaming others à less likely to share different
views à “common knowledge effect” (no new ideas)
Lecture week 1: MECHANISMS OF LEADERSHIP
Social learning theory: we learn by observing and imitating other people’s behaviour
• People can learn new information and behavior by watching other people
• Observational learning: learning from observing a role model
Two types of observational learning
1. Inhibition (= remming): response that you would normally enact but you learn to
inhibit/withhold that particular response
2. Disinhibition (= ontremming): response that you would normally not do but you see someone
elso doing it, so you enact on it too
Necessary conditions for social learning
• Attention: behavior is noticed
• Retention: how well behaviour is remembered
• Reproduction: ability to perform behavior
• Motivation (reinforcement): will to perform behavior
Social Identity theory: how people relate to one another in group/ team settings
• Person’s sense of who they are based on their group membership
• Groups give us a sense of belonging to the social world
• Groups are source of pride and self-esteem
• When social identity is salient, people act as representatives of a group rather than individuals
Social categorization: the act of putting oneself and others into categories
• In-group: yours
• Out-group: others
Social identification: when you absorb your in-group’s norms, values and culture. You notice
difference between in and out-group. Group becomes part of your social identity
Social comparison: to boost own’s self esteem, one thinks of their ingroup as better and superior to
outgroup à positive distinctiveness
Reciprocity principle: we pay back what we receive from others
• Cheating model: belief that others are taking advantage of us – tracking costs and benefits to
keep in balance with others
Perceived organisational support: degree to which employees believe that organisation values their
contributions and cares about their well-being and fulfils socio-emotional needs
Social exchange thoery
• Social interaction is shaped by a reciprocal exchange of tangible and non-tangible rewards
• Every interaction can be understood as a form of exchange in which each participant gives the
other more than he had himself possessed
• Bridging theory between studies of interactions between individuals, and studies that
examined the collectivist or structural dimensions of society – economic systems, political
institutions, belief systems
,Core assumptions
• Social actors engage in activities as a means of obtaining desired goals
• All social activities involve some cost to the actor – time, energy, other resources
• Social actors seek to economise their activities by keeping costs below rewards
Six types of social rewards
1. Personal attraction
2. Social acceptance
3. Social approval
4. Instrumental services
5. Respect/prestige
6. Compliance/power
Three types of social costs
1. Investment: in time and effort to develop skills that will be used to rewards others
2. Direct costs: form of a resource given to another in exchange for something else
3. Opportunity costs: loss of rewards which would have been available elsewhere
Leader member exchange (LMX): leadership is a process that is focused on the interactions between
leader and subordinates
Social exchange theory
Relationship phases
• Stranger phase: roles are highly scripted and most exchanges are based on organizational
rules and hierarchies. Little trust at play
• Acquaintance phase: leader offers subordinated improved benefits. Attempting to feel out the
subordinates and see what they are motivated by. Trust develops. Subordinates begin to focus
less on self-interest and more on group goals.
• Partnership phase: mutual and high quality exchanges. Favors are provided for each other
under mutual trust. Subordinate focuses on group goals and moves beyond self-interst.
Self-efficacy: self perception of how well one can execute courses of action required to deal with
prospective situations
• Determines whether we think we can meet the challenges necessary and how long we will
persevere in the face of obstacles
• Affects every aspect of human striving. Shapes the beliefs a person holds regarding their
power to affect situations
We avoid tasks where self-efficacy is low and seek out tasks where self efficacy is high.
When self-efficacy is too far above abilities, we set ourselves up to failures
When self-efficacy is too far below abilities, we don’t learn and develop
Optimal level is little above ability – encourages striving with opportunities for success à zone of
proximal development
Learned helplessness: person suffers from a sense of powerlessness from persistent failure to succeed
(example elephant and dog)
Expectancy theory of motivation: people will work hard and strive towards goals that are achievable
Path goal theory: define the goal, clarify the path, remove obstacles and provide support
, Psychological safety: comfort admitting mistakes à learning from failure à everyone openly shares
ideas à better innovation & decision-making
How to create it?
• Approach conflict as a collaborator and not an adversary
• Speak human to human
• Anticipate reactions and plan counter moves
• Replace blame with curiosity
• Ask for feedback on delivery
• Measure psychological safety
Psychological danger: fear of admitting mistakes à blaming others à less likely to share different
views à “common knowledge effect” (no new ideas)
