Chapter 1
An assertion must have both logical and empirical support; it must make sense, and it must not contradict
actual observation.
Two scientific approaches to reality:
1. Epistemology: science of knowing
2. Methodology(subfield of epistemology): the science of finding out.
Causal reasoning: recognizing the future circumstances that are somehow caused by present ones.
Probabilistic reasoning: effects occur more often when the causes occur.
Important sources of our secondhand knowledge:
1. Tradition
2. Authority
Common errors we make in our causal inquiries:
1. Inaccurate observations
a. Making simple observations more calculated can reduce error.
2. Overgeneralization
a. We assume similar events are evidence of a general pattern.
b. Replication: the duplication of an experiment to expose or reduce error.
3. Selective observation
a. Overgeneralization can lead to selective observation.
4. Illogical reasoning
Several views on reality:
a) Pre-modern: assuming what we saw things as they are real.
b) Modern: nobody is wrong in their view of reality.
c) Post-modern: the things we thought were real are the images we get from our point of view.
Foundations of Social Science:
1. Theory: a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
2. Data collection
3. Data analysis
Social science aims to find patterns in social life. Social regularities exist and are worthy of theoretical and
empirical study. Social scientific theories try to explain why aggregated patterns of behavior are so regular
when the individuals participating may change over time.
,Social research involves the study of variables and attributes.
Attributes: a characteristic of a person or thing.
Variable: a logical group of attributes.
a. Independent variable: a variable with values that are not problematic in an analysis but are taken as
simple given. They cause or determine a dependent variable.
b. Dependent variable: a variable assumed to depend on or caused by another (by independent
variable)
Social research’s purpose to be done:
1. Describing the state of social affairs
2. Explanatory function, providing reasons for social phenomena in terms of causal relationships.
Social Dialects Of Social Research
1. Idiographic and nomothetic explanation
a. Ideographic: an approach to explain idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition
b. Nomothetic: an approach to explain causal factors that generally impacts conditions.
2. Inductive and deductive theory:
a. Induction: the logical model in which general principles are developed from specific
observations. (tüme varım)
b. Deduction: the logical model in which specific expectations of hypotheses are developed
on the basis of general principles.
3. Quantitative and qualitative data
a. Quantitative: more explicit observations, (survey)
b. Qualitative: reacher data in meaning (interview)
4. Pure and applied research
Chapter 2
Theory functions in research:
1. Prevents improbabilities
2. Make sense of observation patterns that can suggest other possibilities
3. Direct research efforts
Paradigm: a model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and
how we understand it. The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the integrationist
paradigm causes us to see it differently.
- Fundamental frame that underlies social theory
- Fundamental frame to organize our observations and reasoning
, - Hard to recognize because it is implicit
- Seen as a point of view
- Succession of paradigms represents progress from false views to true ones.
- Paradigms cannot be true or false, they can only be more or less useful.
Macro theory: deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies
Mezo theory: deals with communities
Micro theory: deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small groups.
Conflict Paradigm: social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: the attempt to dominate others
and to avoid being dominated. (includes macro theory) - Karl Marx
Symbol interaction: Mead felt that most interaction revolved around individuals reaching a common
understanding through language and other symbolic systems, therefore we use the term symbolic
interactionism. (inc. micro theory)
+ Social scientific paradigms emphasize the impact of social structure on human behavior, other
paradigms do not.
+ Ethno methodological paradigm focuses on communication.
Structural functionalism: a social entity, such as organizations or a whole society, can be viewed as an
organism.
Feminist paradigm: focuses on gender differences, draws attention to the opression of woman and so on.
Critical race theory paradigm: based on race awareness and a commitment to racial justice.
Main elements in traditional model of science:
1. Theory (begins with theory which researchers take hypotheses that they can test)
2. Operationalization: specifying how we measure the variables we defined. (for testing hypotheses)
3. Observation : looking at the world and making measurements of what is seen.
* Null hypotheses: predicts no relationship between the 2 variables.
* Theory and research can be accomplished both inductively and deductively. Deduction begins
with an expected pattern that is tested against observation. Induction begins with observations and
seeks to find a pattern with them.
Theory and research interact through never
ending alternation of deduction and induction.
+ Deductive model, research is used to test
theories. Inductive model theories are
developed from the analysis of research data.
Characteristics of a Good Research question:
1. Interesting
2. Relevant
An assertion must have both logical and empirical support; it must make sense, and it must not contradict
actual observation.
Two scientific approaches to reality:
1. Epistemology: science of knowing
2. Methodology(subfield of epistemology): the science of finding out.
Causal reasoning: recognizing the future circumstances that are somehow caused by present ones.
Probabilistic reasoning: effects occur more often when the causes occur.
Important sources of our secondhand knowledge:
1. Tradition
2. Authority
Common errors we make in our causal inquiries:
1. Inaccurate observations
a. Making simple observations more calculated can reduce error.
2. Overgeneralization
a. We assume similar events are evidence of a general pattern.
b. Replication: the duplication of an experiment to expose or reduce error.
3. Selective observation
a. Overgeneralization can lead to selective observation.
4. Illogical reasoning
Several views on reality:
a) Pre-modern: assuming what we saw things as they are real.
b) Modern: nobody is wrong in their view of reality.
c) Post-modern: the things we thought were real are the images we get from our point of view.
Foundations of Social Science:
1. Theory: a systematic explanation for the observations that relate to a particular aspect of life.
2. Data collection
3. Data analysis
Social science aims to find patterns in social life. Social regularities exist and are worthy of theoretical and
empirical study. Social scientific theories try to explain why aggregated patterns of behavior are so regular
when the individuals participating may change over time.
,Social research involves the study of variables and attributes.
Attributes: a characteristic of a person or thing.
Variable: a logical group of attributes.
a. Independent variable: a variable with values that are not problematic in an analysis but are taken as
simple given. They cause or determine a dependent variable.
b. Dependent variable: a variable assumed to depend on or caused by another (by independent
variable)
Social research’s purpose to be done:
1. Describing the state of social affairs
2. Explanatory function, providing reasons for social phenomena in terms of causal relationships.
Social Dialects Of Social Research
1. Idiographic and nomothetic explanation
a. Ideographic: an approach to explain idiosyncratic causes of a particular condition
b. Nomothetic: an approach to explain causal factors that generally impacts conditions.
2. Inductive and deductive theory:
a. Induction: the logical model in which general principles are developed from specific
observations. (tüme varım)
b. Deduction: the logical model in which specific expectations of hypotheses are developed
on the basis of general principles.
3. Quantitative and qualitative data
a. Quantitative: more explicit observations, (survey)
b. Qualitative: reacher data in meaning (interview)
4. Pure and applied research
Chapter 2
Theory functions in research:
1. Prevents improbabilities
2. Make sense of observation patterns that can suggest other possibilities
3. Direct research efforts
Paradigm: a model or framework for observation and understanding, which shapes both what we see and
how we understand it. The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior one way, the integrationist
paradigm causes us to see it differently.
- Fundamental frame that underlies social theory
- Fundamental frame to organize our observations and reasoning
, - Hard to recognize because it is implicit
- Seen as a point of view
- Succession of paradigms represents progress from false views to true ones.
- Paradigms cannot be true or false, they can only be more or less useful.
Macro theory: deals with large, aggregate entities of society or even whole societies
Mezo theory: deals with communities
Micro theory: deals with issues of social life at the level of individuals and small groups.
Conflict Paradigm: social behavior could be seen as the process of conflict: the attempt to dominate others
and to avoid being dominated. (includes macro theory) - Karl Marx
Symbol interaction: Mead felt that most interaction revolved around individuals reaching a common
understanding through language and other symbolic systems, therefore we use the term symbolic
interactionism. (inc. micro theory)
+ Social scientific paradigms emphasize the impact of social structure on human behavior, other
paradigms do not.
+ Ethno methodological paradigm focuses on communication.
Structural functionalism: a social entity, such as organizations or a whole society, can be viewed as an
organism.
Feminist paradigm: focuses on gender differences, draws attention to the opression of woman and so on.
Critical race theory paradigm: based on race awareness and a commitment to racial justice.
Main elements in traditional model of science:
1. Theory (begins with theory which researchers take hypotheses that they can test)
2. Operationalization: specifying how we measure the variables we defined. (for testing hypotheses)
3. Observation : looking at the world and making measurements of what is seen.
* Null hypotheses: predicts no relationship between the 2 variables.
* Theory and research can be accomplished both inductively and deductively. Deduction begins
with an expected pattern that is tested against observation. Induction begins with observations and
seeks to find a pattern with them.
Theory and research interact through never
ending alternation of deduction and induction.
+ Deductive model, research is used to test
theories. Inductive model theories are
developed from the analysis of research data.
Characteristics of a Good Research question:
1. Interesting
2. Relevant
