RESEARCH METHODS:
Features of Science:
o Objectivity & Empirical Method:
Aim for objectivity to avoid personal biases.
Laboratory experiments are most objective due to controlled variables.
Empirical methods rely on observable evidence for conclusions.
o Replicability:
Ability to repeat studies enhances reliability.
Repeated findings across different contexts strengthen generalizability
and validity.
o Falsifiability:
Karl Popper’s principle that scientific theories must be falsifiable.
Theories should withstand attempts to prove them wrong; survival
suggests strong validity.
o Theory Construction & Hypothesis Testing:
Theories explain behaviours (e.g., memory, attachment).
Hypotheses are testable predictions derived from theories.
Research either accepts or rejects hypotheses, leading to theory
modification.
o Paradigms & Paradigm Shifts:
Paradigms are accepted frameworks within a discipline.
Kuhn argued psychology lacks a single paradigm, contrasting it with
biology.
Paradigm shifts occur when new evidence challenges existing
assumptions (e.g., shifts from structuralism to cognitive neuroscience).
Is Psychology a Science?
Arguments For:
o Theories based on empirical evidence.
o Unexpected empirical results indicate complexity beyond common sense.
o Documented paradigm shifts in the field.
o Development of effective treatments for abnormal behaviors.
Arguments Against:
o Psychological methods can introduce bias (e.g., demand characteristics).
o Difficulty in establishing universal laws due to sample limitations.
, o Some theories (cognitive, evolutionary) may be non-testable.
o Multiple competing explanations indicate a lack of a unified paradigm.
Scientific Processes:
Aims: The purpose of the research (e.g., "Does age affect memory?").
Hypotheses:
o Directional: Predicts the nature of the effect (e.g., "Young people will perform
better on memory tests").
o Non-directional: Predicts a difference but not the direction (e.g., "There will be a
difference in memory performance between age groups").
o Null: Predicts no effect or difference.
Variables:
Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured in response to the IV.
Operationalisation: Defining IVs and DVs in measurable terms.
Control of Variables:
Extraneous Variables: Any variable that might affect the DV, other than the IV, if not
controlled.
Confounding Variables: Variables that systematically vary with the IV, impacting the
DV (e.g., time of day).
Demand Characteristics: Participants alter behaviour based on perceived study aims.
Investigator Effects: Unintended influence from the researcher (e.g., body language).
Randomisation: Using chance to allocate participants or tasks, reducing bias.
Standardisation: Keeping procedures the same for all participants.
Control Techniques:
Single-blind: Participants do not know the aim of the study.
Double-blind: Both the participants and the investigator do not know the aim.
Control Groups: Used for comparison, often to test drug effects.
Sampling Techniques:
Random: Everyone in the population has an equal chance.
Systematic: Every 'nth' person is selected.
Features of Science:
o Objectivity & Empirical Method:
Aim for objectivity to avoid personal biases.
Laboratory experiments are most objective due to controlled variables.
Empirical methods rely on observable evidence for conclusions.
o Replicability:
Ability to repeat studies enhances reliability.
Repeated findings across different contexts strengthen generalizability
and validity.
o Falsifiability:
Karl Popper’s principle that scientific theories must be falsifiable.
Theories should withstand attempts to prove them wrong; survival
suggests strong validity.
o Theory Construction & Hypothesis Testing:
Theories explain behaviours (e.g., memory, attachment).
Hypotheses are testable predictions derived from theories.
Research either accepts or rejects hypotheses, leading to theory
modification.
o Paradigms & Paradigm Shifts:
Paradigms are accepted frameworks within a discipline.
Kuhn argued psychology lacks a single paradigm, contrasting it with
biology.
Paradigm shifts occur when new evidence challenges existing
assumptions (e.g., shifts from structuralism to cognitive neuroscience).
Is Psychology a Science?
Arguments For:
o Theories based on empirical evidence.
o Unexpected empirical results indicate complexity beyond common sense.
o Documented paradigm shifts in the field.
o Development of effective treatments for abnormal behaviors.
Arguments Against:
o Psychological methods can introduce bias (e.g., demand characteristics).
o Difficulty in establishing universal laws due to sample limitations.
, o Some theories (cognitive, evolutionary) may be non-testable.
o Multiple competing explanations indicate a lack of a unified paradigm.
Scientific Processes:
Aims: The purpose of the research (e.g., "Does age affect memory?").
Hypotheses:
o Directional: Predicts the nature of the effect (e.g., "Young people will perform
better on memory tests").
o Non-directional: Predicts a difference but not the direction (e.g., "There will be a
difference in memory performance between age groups").
o Null: Predicts no effect or difference.
Variables:
Independent Variable (IV): The variable manipulated by the researcher.
Dependent Variable (DV): The outcome measured in response to the IV.
Operationalisation: Defining IVs and DVs in measurable terms.
Control of Variables:
Extraneous Variables: Any variable that might affect the DV, other than the IV, if not
controlled.
Confounding Variables: Variables that systematically vary with the IV, impacting the
DV (e.g., time of day).
Demand Characteristics: Participants alter behaviour based on perceived study aims.
Investigator Effects: Unintended influence from the researcher (e.g., body language).
Randomisation: Using chance to allocate participants or tasks, reducing bias.
Standardisation: Keeping procedures the same for all participants.
Control Techniques:
Single-blind: Participants do not know the aim of the study.
Double-blind: Both the participants and the investigator do not know the aim.
Control Groups: Used for comparison, often to test drug effects.
Sampling Techniques:
Random: Everyone in the population has an equal chance.
Systematic: Every 'nth' person is selected.
