Overview of the key concepts from
the literature
Week 1: Naturalism and constructivism, and the definitions of
theory 2
The meaning of ‘theory’ ~ Abend 2
Week 2: The sociology of Max Weber & Max Weber on
rationalization 4
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 169-182) 4
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 183-218) 7
Week 3: Structural functionalism, exchange theory and rational
choice theory, causality, and social mechanisms 10
Contemporary sociological theory: Continuing the classical tradition ~
Wallace & Wolf 10
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 500-512) // What is
analytical sociology all about? An introductory essay ~ Hedström &
Bearman 13
Week 4: Relational sociology 15
Manifesto for a relational sociology ~ Emirbayer 15
Week 5: Social network theory and the sociology of knowledge
and the sociology of sociology 17
Social network analysis: An introduction ~ Marin & Wellman // What is
analytical sociology all about? An introductory essay ~ Borgatti &
Lopez-Kidwell 17
The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge ~
Berger & Luckmann // An invitation to reflexive sociology ~ Bourdieu &
Wacquant 21
Week 6: Postcolonial theory 24
Postcolonial theory: A critical introduction ~ Gandhi 24
1
,Week 1: Naturalism and constructivism, and
the definitions of theory
The meaning of ‘theory’ ~ Abend
1. Three traditional questions about theory
Sociologists have debated the nature and purpose of theory through three major questions:
1. Ontological question: What is theory?
- This concerns the essence, nature, or reality of theory.
- It assumes that theory is an object that can be clearly defined and
categorized.
2. Evaluative question: What is a good theory?
- This asks about the criteria that determine whether a theory is valid, useful, or
superior.
3. Teleological question: What is theory for?
- This investigates the purpose of theory in sociology, asking whether it should
explain, predict, interpret, or transform society.
Abend argues that before answering any of these, we must first clarify what we mean by
‘theory’, and he therefore introduces the next question:
2. The semantic question (SQ)
Abend introduces a new and more fundamental question: “What does the word ‘theory’
mean?”. This is what he calls the Semantic question (SQ). SQ is crucial because different
sociologists mean different things when they say ‘theory’, which leads to confusion,
miscommunication, and unproductive debates. These misunderstandings lead to the
Socratic Error.
3. Semantic therapy
The word ‘theory’ is used in multiple, often contradictory ways. Different sociologists believe
that their definition of theory is the correct one. Misunderstandings can lead to the Socratic
Error. Abend argues that sociology needs a systematic clarification of what different people
mean by ‘theory’, called ‘semantic therapy’. This would help to increase awareness of the
different senses of 'theory' and their implications for sociological arguments. It involves
integrating semantic awareness into sociological education, textbooks, and discussions, to
encourage sociologists to clarify which sense of 'theory' they are using in their work (Abend
himself proposes seven different meanings of theory).
4. The semantic predicament (SP)
The semantic predicament refers to the problem of deciding what ‘theory’ should mean in
sociology. Abend argues that there is no single correct definition of ‘theory’. Instead, the
meaning of ‘theory’ should be determined through collective discussion and negotiation (not
through discovery).
2
, 5. The Socratic Error
Many sociologists assume that ‘theory’ has a single, objective essence that can be found
through investigation. Abend calls this the Socratic error (after Socrates' method of seeking
one true and objective essence of concepts like justice or virtue). However, ‘theory’ is not a
natural object: it is a socially constructed term, and its meaning depends on usage.
5. Abends seven different meaning of theory
Abend identifies seven distinct meanings of the word ‘theory’ that sociologists use:
1. Theory₁ (general propositions)
- A set of general statements about relationships between variables.
- Example: “Social isolation increases the likelihood of joining social
movements”.
- This is the dominant view in positivist sociology.
2. Theory₂ (explanations of specific events)
- A theory that explains a particular social phenomenon.
- Example: A theory explaining why the 2008 financial crisis happened.
- Unlike Theory₁, it does not claim universal generalizability.
3. Theory₃ (interpretation and meaning)
- A framework for interpreting and making sense of social reality.
- Example: A theory of corruption that explains what corruption means in a
specific culture.
- Often associated with hermeneutic and interpretive sociology.
4. Theory₄ (engagement with classical thinkers)
- The study, analysis, and critique of classical sociological texts (eg Marx,
Weber, Durkheim).
- Example: A paper analyzing how Durkheim conceptualized anomie.
- This is often what is meant by ‘sociological theory’ in university courses.
5. Theory₅ (worldview or theoretical perspective: ‘Weltanschauung’)
- A broad intellectual tradition or paradigm (eg feminism, postmodernism,
critical theory).
- Example: ‘Feminist theory’ or ‘structural-functionalist theory’.
- Shapes the way sociologists frame questions and interpret data.
6. Theory₆ (normative or critical theory)
- A theory that includes ethical and political goals, challenging existing power
structures.
- Example: Critical theory (Frankfurt School), which aims to critique and change
society rather than just explain it.
7. Theory₇ (philosophical or meta-theoretical problems)
- The study of foundational issues in sociology, such as structure vs. agency or
the problem of social order.
- Often includes elements from Theory4.
- Example: Debates over whether social reality is objective or constructed.
3
the literature
Week 1: Naturalism and constructivism, and the definitions of
theory 2
The meaning of ‘theory’ ~ Abend 2
Week 2: The sociology of Max Weber & Max Weber on
rationalization 4
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 169-182) 4
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 183-218) 7
Week 3: Structural functionalism, exchange theory and rational
choice theory, causality, and social mechanisms 10
Contemporary sociological theory: Continuing the classical tradition ~
Wallace & Wolf 10
Sociological theory ~ Ritzer & Stepnisky (pages 500-512) // What is
analytical sociology all about? An introductory essay ~ Hedström &
Bearman 13
Week 4: Relational sociology 15
Manifesto for a relational sociology ~ Emirbayer 15
Week 5: Social network theory and the sociology of knowledge
and the sociology of sociology 17
Social network analysis: An introduction ~ Marin & Wellman // What is
analytical sociology all about? An introductory essay ~ Borgatti &
Lopez-Kidwell 17
The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge ~
Berger & Luckmann // An invitation to reflexive sociology ~ Bourdieu &
Wacquant 21
Week 6: Postcolonial theory 24
Postcolonial theory: A critical introduction ~ Gandhi 24
1
,Week 1: Naturalism and constructivism, and
the definitions of theory
The meaning of ‘theory’ ~ Abend
1. Three traditional questions about theory
Sociologists have debated the nature and purpose of theory through three major questions:
1. Ontological question: What is theory?
- This concerns the essence, nature, or reality of theory.
- It assumes that theory is an object that can be clearly defined and
categorized.
2. Evaluative question: What is a good theory?
- This asks about the criteria that determine whether a theory is valid, useful, or
superior.
3. Teleological question: What is theory for?
- This investigates the purpose of theory in sociology, asking whether it should
explain, predict, interpret, or transform society.
Abend argues that before answering any of these, we must first clarify what we mean by
‘theory’, and he therefore introduces the next question:
2. The semantic question (SQ)
Abend introduces a new and more fundamental question: “What does the word ‘theory’
mean?”. This is what he calls the Semantic question (SQ). SQ is crucial because different
sociologists mean different things when they say ‘theory’, which leads to confusion,
miscommunication, and unproductive debates. These misunderstandings lead to the
Socratic Error.
3. Semantic therapy
The word ‘theory’ is used in multiple, often contradictory ways. Different sociologists believe
that their definition of theory is the correct one. Misunderstandings can lead to the Socratic
Error. Abend argues that sociology needs a systematic clarification of what different people
mean by ‘theory’, called ‘semantic therapy’. This would help to increase awareness of the
different senses of 'theory' and their implications for sociological arguments. It involves
integrating semantic awareness into sociological education, textbooks, and discussions, to
encourage sociologists to clarify which sense of 'theory' they are using in their work (Abend
himself proposes seven different meanings of theory).
4. The semantic predicament (SP)
The semantic predicament refers to the problem of deciding what ‘theory’ should mean in
sociology. Abend argues that there is no single correct definition of ‘theory’. Instead, the
meaning of ‘theory’ should be determined through collective discussion and negotiation (not
through discovery).
2
, 5. The Socratic Error
Many sociologists assume that ‘theory’ has a single, objective essence that can be found
through investigation. Abend calls this the Socratic error (after Socrates' method of seeking
one true and objective essence of concepts like justice or virtue). However, ‘theory’ is not a
natural object: it is a socially constructed term, and its meaning depends on usage.
5. Abends seven different meaning of theory
Abend identifies seven distinct meanings of the word ‘theory’ that sociologists use:
1. Theory₁ (general propositions)
- A set of general statements about relationships between variables.
- Example: “Social isolation increases the likelihood of joining social
movements”.
- This is the dominant view in positivist sociology.
2. Theory₂ (explanations of specific events)
- A theory that explains a particular social phenomenon.
- Example: A theory explaining why the 2008 financial crisis happened.
- Unlike Theory₁, it does not claim universal generalizability.
3. Theory₃ (interpretation and meaning)
- A framework for interpreting and making sense of social reality.
- Example: A theory of corruption that explains what corruption means in a
specific culture.
- Often associated with hermeneutic and interpretive sociology.
4. Theory₄ (engagement with classical thinkers)
- The study, analysis, and critique of classical sociological texts (eg Marx,
Weber, Durkheim).
- Example: A paper analyzing how Durkheim conceptualized anomie.
- This is often what is meant by ‘sociological theory’ in university courses.
5. Theory₅ (worldview or theoretical perspective: ‘Weltanschauung’)
- A broad intellectual tradition or paradigm (eg feminism, postmodernism,
critical theory).
- Example: ‘Feminist theory’ or ‘structural-functionalist theory’.
- Shapes the way sociologists frame questions and interpret data.
6. Theory₆ (normative or critical theory)
- A theory that includes ethical and political goals, challenging existing power
structures.
- Example: Critical theory (Frankfurt School), which aims to critique and change
society rather than just explain it.
7. Theory₇ (philosophical or meta-theoretical problems)
- The study of foundational issues in sociology, such as structure vs. agency or
the problem of social order.
- Often includes elements from Theory4.
- Example: Debates over whether social reality is objective or constructed.
3
