PUP Exam 1 Review Questions &
Answers 2025/2026
Is the social world deterministic or probabilistic? Why do we care about this distinction? What
does it mean to say the social world is multivariate? - ANSWERSA deterministic relationship is
one that will always produce the same output from a treatment or initial state.
A probabilistic relationship, on the other hand, is one that will produce an output from a
treatment or initial state, with some probability. Allows for random chance to alter their
outcomes.
Social processes are generally better captured by a probabilistic rather than deterministic
relationship.
Moreover, social processes are also multivariate, meaning that they have multiple causes.
What is a counterfactual? What does it have to do with understanding causal inference? -
ANSWERSThe counterfactual causal model of inference: testing for the causal effect of some
treatment, X, on some outcome, Y.
It essentially it's observing the inverse of a particular treatment applied to X and observing for
the outcome in Y.
The fundamental problem of causal inference refers to the difficulty that we face in
experimental situations where we cannot expose the same individual to both treatment and
control at the exact same moment in time.
, What are independent variables? How are they related to dependent variables? Know how to
identify each in a theory or hypothesis. - ANSWERSA hypothesis states a relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable.
A theory explains why the hypothesis should hold.
*****
What is a theory? Where do they come from? How do we evaluate their merit? - ANSWERSa
theory to explain how one variable induces a response in the other, X and Y must be correlated,
X proceeds Y in time, and no other variables can account for the correlation between X and Y.
A strong theory enables us to identify causal relationships.
A good theory must be more than simply descriptive. It must move beyond answering the
"what?" question. It must also address "why," "how," or "by what means" variables are related
to each other.
a strong theory enables us to use our understanding of current relationships and current data to
forecast future relationships and developments.
a strong theory can serve as the basis for political or policy action.
What are hypotheses and how do they differ from theories? Why do we need hypotheses for
science? - ANSWERSA hypothesis states a relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable. For example, as one's wealth increases, consumption increases. A theory
explains why the hypothesis should hold.
Answers 2025/2026
Is the social world deterministic or probabilistic? Why do we care about this distinction? What
does it mean to say the social world is multivariate? - ANSWERSA deterministic relationship is
one that will always produce the same output from a treatment or initial state.
A probabilistic relationship, on the other hand, is one that will produce an output from a
treatment or initial state, with some probability. Allows for random chance to alter their
outcomes.
Social processes are generally better captured by a probabilistic rather than deterministic
relationship.
Moreover, social processes are also multivariate, meaning that they have multiple causes.
What is a counterfactual? What does it have to do with understanding causal inference? -
ANSWERSThe counterfactual causal model of inference: testing for the causal effect of some
treatment, X, on some outcome, Y.
It essentially it's observing the inverse of a particular treatment applied to X and observing for
the outcome in Y.
The fundamental problem of causal inference refers to the difficulty that we face in
experimental situations where we cannot expose the same individual to both treatment and
control at the exact same moment in time.
, What are independent variables? How are they related to dependent variables? Know how to
identify each in a theory or hypothesis. - ANSWERSA hypothesis states a relationship between
an independent variable and a dependent variable.
A theory explains why the hypothesis should hold.
*****
What is a theory? Where do they come from? How do we evaluate their merit? - ANSWERSa
theory to explain how one variable induces a response in the other, X and Y must be correlated,
X proceeds Y in time, and no other variables can account for the correlation between X and Y.
A strong theory enables us to identify causal relationships.
A good theory must be more than simply descriptive. It must move beyond answering the
"what?" question. It must also address "why," "how," or "by what means" variables are related
to each other.
a strong theory enables us to use our understanding of current relationships and current data to
forecast future relationships and developments.
a strong theory can serve as the basis for political or policy action.
What are hypotheses and how do they differ from theories? Why do we need hypotheses for
science? - ANSWERSA hypothesis states a relationship between an independent variable and a
dependent variable. For example, as one's wealth increases, consumption increases. A theory
explains why the hypothesis should hold.
