Group
dynamics
(summary of “Group Dynamics” by D.R. Forsyth, 7th ed. + the optional literature)
*the summary includes text from the book Group Dynamics, 7th edition (by D.R. Forsyth) when the concepts
didn’t need any additional explanations; I also added pictures, tables and highlighted the key term/ theories in
hopes that it will make studying easier.
Success!
Laura C. | Tilburg University
1
,Chapter 1 | Introduction to group dynamics .............................................................................. 4
Characteristics of groups........................................................................................................ 5
What are group dynamics?..................................................................................................... 8
Why study groups? ................................................................................................................ 9
The value of groups ............................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 | Studying groups ..................................................................................................... 10
Measurement ........................................................................................................................ 11
Research methods in group dynamics.................................................................................. 13
Theoretical perspectives....................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 | Inclusion and identity ............................................................................................ 18
From isolation to inclusion .................................................................................................. 18
From individualism to collectivism ..................................................................................... 21
From personal identity to social identity ............................................................................. 23
Chapter 4 | Formation .............................................................................................................. 26
Joining groups ...................................................................................................................... 26
Affiliation ............................................................................................................................. 29
Attraction ............................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter 5 | Cohesion and development ................................................................................... 34
Sources of cohesion ............................................................................................................. 34
Developing cohesion ............................................................................................................ 36
Consequences of cohesion ................................................................................................... 39
Application: Explaining initiations ...................................................................................... 40
Chapter 7 | Influence ................................................................................................................ 42
Majority influence: the power of the many.......................................................................... 42
Minority influence: the power of the few ............................................................................ 47
Sources of group influence .................................................................................................. 49
Application: Understanding juries ....................................................................................... 52
How to stop yourself from automatic social influence ........................................................ 53
Chapter 8 | Power ..................................................................................................................... 54
Obedience to authority ......................................................................................................... 54
Social power in groups......................................................................................................... 56
Social status in groups ......................................................................................................... 61
The metamorphic effects of power ...................................................................................... 63
Chapter 9 | Leadership ............................................................................................................. 68
Leading groups..................................................................................................................... 68
Laura C. | Tilburg University
2
, What leaders do.................................................................................................................... 68
Leadership emergence ......................................................................................................... 69
Theories of leadership emergence ....................................................................................... 71
Leadership effectiveness ...................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 10 | Performance ......................................................................................................... 79
Social facilitation ................................................................................................................. 79
Social loafing ....................................................................................................................... 82
Working in groups ............................................................................................................... 84
Group creativity ................................................................................................................... 87
Chapter 12 | Decision making .................................................................................................. 90
The decision-making process ............................................................................................... 90
Decisional biases .................................................................................................................. 95
Victims of groupthink .......................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 13 | Conflict .............................................................................................................. 102
The roots of conflict ........................................................................................................... 102
Confrontation and escalation ............................................................................................. 106
Conflict resolution ............................................................................................................. 108
Chapter 14 | Intergroup relations ........................................................................................... 112
Intergroup conflict: us vs. them ......................................................................................... 112
Intergroup bias: perceiving us and them ............................................................................ 115
Intergroup conflict resolution: uniting us and them........................................................... 118
Coalitions ............................................................................................................................... 122
Self-interest and fairness in coalition formation ................................................................ 122
Ethical free riding .............................................................................................................. 123
The collaborative roots of corruption ................................................................................ 124
The Game of 4-3-2 ............................................................................................................. 124
Laura C. | Tilburg University
3
, Chapter 1 | Introduction to group dynamics
- a group consists of two or more individuals who are connected through social
relationships
- groups can vary in size, from small dyads (two people) and triads (three people) to
large crowds and assemblies; while naturally forming groups often tend to be smaller,
purposefully created groups are usually larger
- a defining feature of groups is the connection between members, emphasizing social
relationships rather than just physical proximity; however, these relationships do not
need to be uniform=> members may be linked in different ways rather than directly to
every other member
- key characteristics often associated with groups include communication, shared
identity, influence, interdependence, common goals and tasks, social structures,
psychological awareness of each other (= psychological significance), and systems
with boundaries
- groups can be classified into four main types:
primary groups
social secondary groups
collectives
categories
primary groups – these are small, intimate, and long-lasting groups, such as families and
close friends- they shape individuals' behaviours, emotions, and social identity;
members feel a deep connection even when apart; these groups provide emotional
support, protection, and a bridge between individuals and society (they transform
individuals into social beings)
social secondary groups – larger, more structured, and less personal than primary groups,
these are formed for specific purposes (e.g., workplaces, clubs); membership is
usually short-term, with lower emotional involvement, allowing for easier transitions
between groups; people usually belong to a very small number of primary groups, but
they can enjoy membership in a variety of social groups
collectives – temporary and loosely connected gatherings of individuals, such as crowds,
audiences, or lines of people; these groups form due to shared actions or interests but
dissolve quickly when the shared activity ends
Laura C. | Tilburg University
4
,categories – a social category is a group of individuals who share a common characteristic,
such as nationality, ethnicity, or gender
e.g.: Irish citizens and African Americans are social categories based on nationality and
ancestry
if a category has no social implications, it remains a simple classification of people
with a shared feature; however, when a category influences personal identity or social
interactions, it can become a powerful group
e.g.: celebrating St. Patrick’s day due to Irish heritage or people reacting differently to an
individual based on their racial background can turn a category into a socially meaningful
group
social identity refers to how individuals define themselves based on their
membership in a social group- it is a key part of self-concept, shaped by both
awareness of belonging to a group and the emotional significance attached to that
membership; social categories also influence how outsiders perceive members of a
group- when individuals categorize others as belonging to a certain group (“those
people”), they often rely on stereotypes to form opinions. this can lead to
misconceptions, biases, and social divisions, reinforcing an “us vs. them” mentality,
where people see themselves as part of an in-group while distinguishing others as
outsiders
Characteristics of groups
- groups possess various defining characteristics that influence their composition,
structure, and function; the key characteristics include:
composition (who belongs to the group?)
boundaries (who does not belong?)
size (how large is the group?)
interaction (what do members do?)
interdependence (do the members depend on each other?)
structure (how is the group organized?)
goals (what is the group’s purpose?)
origin (founded or formed?)
unity (how cohesive is the group?)
entitativity (does the group look like a group?)
composition – the individuals that make up the group define its nature; even if groups have
the same number of members, they will differ due to the uniqueness of each person
boundaries1 – groups have psychological or physical boundaries that determine who belongs
and who does not; some groups have open membership, allowing fluid participation
(=open groups), while others are closed, with limited or exclusive entry (=closed
groups)
1
Social Networks vs. Groups: Both social networks and groups connect individuals through relationships, but
they differ in structure and boundaries. Groups have clear membership and defined inclusion criteria, while
networks are fluid, allowing anyone to join by connecting with an existing member. Networks attract more
diverse individuals and range from weak to strong ties, whereas groups typically have stronger bonds and shared
identity.
5
Laura C. | Tilburg University
, regardless of the reasons for membership fluctuations, open groups are especially
unlikely to reach a state of equilibrium since members recognize that they may lose or
relinquish their place within the group at any time; members of such groups, especially those
in which membership is dependent on voting or meeting a particular standard, are more likely
to monitor the actions of others
closed groups are often more cohesive as competition for membership is irrelevant
and group members anticipate future collaborations. thus, in closed groups, individuals are
more likely to focus on the collective nature of the group and to identify with the group
size – the number of members impacts interaction and relationships; as group size increases,
direct interactions become more challenging, and members rely on indirect
connections; the maximum number of ties within a group in which everyone is linked
to everyone else is given by the equation n(n – 1)/2, where n is the number of people
in the group
because of the limits of most people’s capacity to keep track of so many social
relationships, once the group surpasses about 150 individuals, members usually cannot
connect with each and every member of the group => in larger groups, members are
connected to one another indirectly rather than directly
interaction – Bales recognized that group behaviour falls into two types:
o task interaction (work, projects, and goals)
o relationship interaction (social and emotional support)- if group members falter and need
support, others will buy them up with kind
words, suggestions, and other forms of help
effective groups balance both2
interdependence – members rely on each other
in varying degrees: in flat structures,
influence is equal and reciprocal
(=symmetric groups), whereas
hierarchical groups have unequal power
dynamics
structure – groups develop patterns of
organization, including:
o roles- specify the general behaviours
expected of people who occupy different
positions within the group (leader, follower,
decision-maker)
o norms- describe what behaviours should and should not be performed in each context
(=expected behaviours and rules)
o subgroups (when several members form a subgroup within the larger group, they exert
more influence on the rest of the group than they would individually)
2
Dunbar’s social brain hypothesis suggests that humans evolved larger brains to handle the complexities of
group life. Social living provides survival benefits but also requires tracking relationships, alliances, and
trustworthiness. Dunbar found that species with larger brains tend to live in bigger groups. Based on human
neocortex size, he estimated that humans are naturally suited for groups of 150 people or fewer, beyond which
information-processing becomes overwhelming
6
Laura C. | Tilburg University
,goals – groups set objectives that
influence their function/ task;
McGrath’s task model
distinguishes between:
o conceptual tasks-types 2 and 5-
(decision-making, problem-
solving)
o behavioural tasks- types 1, 6, 7,
8- (physical actions, production)
o cooperative tasks - types 1, 3,
and 8 - (collaboration)
o conflict tasks- types 4 and 7-
(competition)
=>groups dealing with conceptual
tasks (types 2–5) generally exhibit
high levels of information exchange,
social influence, and process-oriented activity;
groups dealing with behavioural tasks (types 1, 6, 7, 8) are those that produce things or
perform services- members of these groups perform a series of motor tasks that range from
the simple and relatively individualistic through to the complex and highly interdependent;
conflict tasks (types 4–7) pit individuals and groups against each other, whereas cooperative
tasks require collaboration (types 1–3, and 8)
some groups perform tasks from nearly all of McGrath’s categories, whereas others
concentrate on only one subset of goals
origin – groups are either planed or emergent:
o planned groups (deliberately created for a purpose, e.g., a study group)
planned groups tend to be organized, task-focused, and formal; they generally define their
membership criteria clearly and often operate under a set of bylaws, contracts or similar
regulations that describe the group’s acceptable procedures and practices; such groups,
despite their overall level of organization and definition, may also lack emotional substance
o emergent groups (formed spontaneously through repeated interaction)
emergent groups arise over time and through repeated association of the eventual
members; these groups are not explicitly organized, but they often develop elements of
structure; they have no written rules, but they likely develop unwritten norms that define
what behaviours are appropriate and what behaviours are inappropriate
unlike planned groups, membership in an emergent group is sought as a means in and of
itself: people don’t join to gain some goal but because they find satisfaction in associating
with the group members
additionally, groups can be categorized based on internal vs. external formation:
o concocted groups (created by outsiders, e.g., a flight crew)
o founded groups (created by members, e.g., a club)
o circumstantial groups (formed by external events, e.g., stranded travellers)
o self-organizing groups (formed naturally through interaction, e.g., social circles)
unity (cohesion) – group cohesion is the strength of social bonds among members, and it
determines the group's stability and commitment; more cohesive groups experience
less conflict and have stronger member loyalty
Laura C. | Tilburg University
7
,entitativity (perceived groupness)3 – the extent to which a group is seen as a real and
unified entity; factors that increase entitativity include similarity, proximity, shared
fate, and frequent interaction
based on entitativity ratings emerge four natural groupings:
o primary groups (family, close friends) have the highest entitativity
o social groups (work teams, clubs)
o categories (e.g., ethnic groups) are more abstract but still group-like
o collectives (crowds, waiting lines) have the lowest entitativity
What are group dynamics?
- group dynamics are the influential interpersonal processes that occur in and between
groups over time; they shape how groups function, evolve, and interact over time;
moreover, they influence member relationships, group cohesion, decision-making,
and overall group trajectory
e.g.: groups tend to become more cohesive over time
- key types of group processes include:
o formative processes (group formation and development)
o influence processes (how members affect each other)
o performance processes (task execution and productivity)
o conflict processes (disagreements and resolutions)
o contextual processes (external factors influencing the group)
- groups are dynamic, with relationships and interactions
constantly evolving, over time, patterns of likes, dislikes,
influence, power struggles, and social pressures shape group
functioning
Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model of Group Development
outlines this process:
o forming – members become acquainted and oriented toward one
another
o storming – conflicts arise as members compete for status and define goals
o norming – structure develops, and group norms are established
3
The Thomas Theorem states that if people define situations as real, they have real consequences. Applied to
groups, when people perceive a group as real and unified (high entitativity), it affects both members and
outsiders.
For members: High entitativity increases group identification, commitment, and shared values.
Members feel more bonded and accept group outcomes as their own.
For outsiders: High entitativity leads to stereotyping and biases, as perceivers assume group members
are interchangeable and share the same traits. 8
Laura C. | Tilburg University
,o performing – the group focuses on tasks, collaboration, and productivity
o adjourning – the group dissolves after achieving its purpose or completing its task
Why study groups?
- groups tend to be powerful rather than weak, active rather than passive, and fluid
rather than static; Lewin also used the term group dynamics to describe the scientific
discipline devoted to the study of these dynamics
- we study groups to understand people and the social world, and to use this knowledge
to find solutions to practical problems
- groups shape individuals' attitudes, values, and behaviours, yet people often overlook
their influence, focusing instead on individuals- this bias, linked to the fundamental
attribution error (FAE), leads to attributing actions to personal traits rather than group
dynamics
- researchers argue that people behave differently in groups, conforming to pressures
they might resist alone; social values shift from family to peer groups and broader
networks over time; while group influence is often temporary, high-control groups
like cults can cause lasting changes in beliefs and behaviour
- people acquire their attitudes, values, identities, skills, and principles in groups
- Hofstede’s theory of national cultures: Hofstede’s theory identifies key cultural
dimensions that highlight differences in values and norms across societies:
o power distance index (PDI) – measures inequality in social hierarchy
o individualism (IDV) – differentiates between individualistic and group-oriented cultures
o masculinity (MAS) – assesses the emphasis on competition, assertiveness, and traditional
gender roles
o uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) – evaluates how cultures manage uncertainty and
ambiguity
- studying groups is key to understanding individuals, organizations, and society;
groups serve as microstructures that connect people to the larger social system- from
tribal communities to modern societies, groups shape culture, institutions, and social
structures; legal, political, religious, educational, and economic systems all rely on
small groups and interconnected subgroups to function and evolve
- understanding groups and their dynamics is crucial for achieving goals, as groups
create, produce, and make key decisions in society; they drive industries, governance,
and innovation; this practical significance gives group dynamics an interdisciplinary
nature, relevant across multiple fields
The value of groups
- philosophers and scholars have long debated whether groups are beneficial or
harmful; while groups foster cooperation, they also breed conflict, competition, and
poor decision-making, sometimes leading to violence or disaster; large groups, such
as crowds, can drive individuals to act in ways they wouldn’t alone
- while groups can and do result in challenges, hardships and even disaster for their
members and for society, they are so beneficial, if not essential to humans: they shape
our values, beliefs, and social identity, provide support in uncertainty, and teach
conflict resolution; groups are the foundation of social existence, making their study
crucial for understanding human behaviour
Laura C. | Tilburg University
9
, Chapter 2 | Studying groups
- group dynamics, the scientific field devoted to the
study of groups and their dynamics, resulted from group
processes; these group processes shaped the field’s paradigm
(Kuhn used that term to describe scientists’ shared
assumptions about the phenomena they study; Kuhn
maintained that when scientists learn their field, they master
not only the content of the science, but also a way of looking
at the world that is passed on from one scientist to another;
the paradigm determines the questions they consider worth
studying, using the methods that are most appropriate)
- Le Bon concluded individuals are transformed when they join a group; Wundt, the
prominent psychologist of that time, published his book Völkerspsychologie: group
psychology, where he binds elements of anthropology and psychology, exploring how
groups influence members’ cognition and perception
- early theorists disagreed about the level of analysis to take when studying groups;
some supported a group-level approach (group-level analysis), emphasizing how
groups shape individuals, while others preferred an individual-level focus
(individual-level analysis) on personal traits and psychological processes (attitudes,
motivations) of the individuals in the group; Durkheim, advocating for group-level
analysis, traced suicide to social factors and emphasized the role of collective
representations (= widely shared beliefs) in shaping society
- some researchers argued that group behaviour could be explained solely through
individual psychology; Allport, for example, rejected the idea that groups are real
entities, instead viewing them as the sum of individual actions- he warned against the
group fallacy, emphasizing that only individuals think and feel, while attributing
these traits to a group lacks clear meaning
- group mind (or collective consciousness): the concept of group mind (or collective
consciousness) highlighted the divide between group-level and individual-level
perspectives; Le Bon and Durkheim argued that groups possess unique characteristics
beyond individual members, linked by a shared “esprit de group”
opposing this view, individual-level theorists4 acknowledged that group members
often behave similarly but rejected the idea of a shared mental state; Allport instead
described “collective structures”, where individuals are connected but remain
psychologically independent
- the reality of groups: while no evidence supports the idea of a psychic group mind,
group-level concepts like norms are real and influential; norms are shared standards
within a group, not just individual preferences, and only function when members
collectively agree
Sherif’s research showed that individuals adjust their judgments to align with group
norms, even when making independent decisions, since norms persist beyond individual
members, they exist at the group level, not just within individuals (only when members agree
4
Researchers who preferred to study individuals in groups and not groups themselves were willing to concede
that group members often act as if they were of one mind – they all respond very similarly – but they rejected
the idea that group members shared a single conscious mental state.
10
Laura C. | Tilburg University
dynamics
(summary of “Group Dynamics” by D.R. Forsyth, 7th ed. + the optional literature)
*the summary includes text from the book Group Dynamics, 7th edition (by D.R. Forsyth) when the concepts
didn’t need any additional explanations; I also added pictures, tables and highlighted the key term/ theories in
hopes that it will make studying easier.
Success!
Laura C. | Tilburg University
1
,Chapter 1 | Introduction to group dynamics .............................................................................. 4
Characteristics of groups........................................................................................................ 5
What are group dynamics?..................................................................................................... 8
Why study groups? ................................................................................................................ 9
The value of groups ............................................................................................................... 9
Chapter 2 | Studying groups ..................................................................................................... 10
Measurement ........................................................................................................................ 11
Research methods in group dynamics.................................................................................. 13
Theoretical perspectives....................................................................................................... 15
Chapter 3 | Inclusion and identity ............................................................................................ 18
From isolation to inclusion .................................................................................................. 18
From individualism to collectivism ..................................................................................... 21
From personal identity to social identity ............................................................................. 23
Chapter 4 | Formation .............................................................................................................. 26
Joining groups ...................................................................................................................... 26
Affiliation ............................................................................................................................. 29
Attraction ............................................................................................................................. 31
Chapter 5 | Cohesion and development ................................................................................... 34
Sources of cohesion ............................................................................................................. 34
Developing cohesion ............................................................................................................ 36
Consequences of cohesion ................................................................................................... 39
Application: Explaining initiations ...................................................................................... 40
Chapter 7 | Influence ................................................................................................................ 42
Majority influence: the power of the many.......................................................................... 42
Minority influence: the power of the few ............................................................................ 47
Sources of group influence .................................................................................................. 49
Application: Understanding juries ....................................................................................... 52
How to stop yourself from automatic social influence ........................................................ 53
Chapter 8 | Power ..................................................................................................................... 54
Obedience to authority ......................................................................................................... 54
Social power in groups......................................................................................................... 56
Social status in groups ......................................................................................................... 61
The metamorphic effects of power ...................................................................................... 63
Chapter 9 | Leadership ............................................................................................................. 68
Leading groups..................................................................................................................... 68
Laura C. | Tilburg University
2
, What leaders do.................................................................................................................... 68
Leadership emergence ......................................................................................................... 69
Theories of leadership emergence ....................................................................................... 71
Leadership effectiveness ...................................................................................................... 73
Chapter 10 | Performance ......................................................................................................... 79
Social facilitation ................................................................................................................. 79
Social loafing ....................................................................................................................... 82
Working in groups ............................................................................................................... 84
Group creativity ................................................................................................................... 87
Chapter 12 | Decision making .................................................................................................. 90
The decision-making process ............................................................................................... 90
Decisional biases .................................................................................................................. 95
Victims of groupthink .......................................................................................................... 97
Chapter 13 | Conflict .............................................................................................................. 102
The roots of conflict ........................................................................................................... 102
Confrontation and escalation ............................................................................................. 106
Conflict resolution ............................................................................................................. 108
Chapter 14 | Intergroup relations ........................................................................................... 112
Intergroup conflict: us vs. them ......................................................................................... 112
Intergroup bias: perceiving us and them ............................................................................ 115
Intergroup conflict resolution: uniting us and them........................................................... 118
Coalitions ............................................................................................................................... 122
Self-interest and fairness in coalition formation ................................................................ 122
Ethical free riding .............................................................................................................. 123
The collaborative roots of corruption ................................................................................ 124
The Game of 4-3-2 ............................................................................................................. 124
Laura C. | Tilburg University
3
, Chapter 1 | Introduction to group dynamics
- a group consists of two or more individuals who are connected through social
relationships
- groups can vary in size, from small dyads (two people) and triads (three people) to
large crowds and assemblies; while naturally forming groups often tend to be smaller,
purposefully created groups are usually larger
- a defining feature of groups is the connection between members, emphasizing social
relationships rather than just physical proximity; however, these relationships do not
need to be uniform=> members may be linked in different ways rather than directly to
every other member
- key characteristics often associated with groups include communication, shared
identity, influence, interdependence, common goals and tasks, social structures,
psychological awareness of each other (= psychological significance), and systems
with boundaries
- groups can be classified into four main types:
primary groups
social secondary groups
collectives
categories
primary groups – these are small, intimate, and long-lasting groups, such as families and
close friends- they shape individuals' behaviours, emotions, and social identity;
members feel a deep connection even when apart; these groups provide emotional
support, protection, and a bridge between individuals and society (they transform
individuals into social beings)
social secondary groups – larger, more structured, and less personal than primary groups,
these are formed for specific purposes (e.g., workplaces, clubs); membership is
usually short-term, with lower emotional involvement, allowing for easier transitions
between groups; people usually belong to a very small number of primary groups, but
they can enjoy membership in a variety of social groups
collectives – temporary and loosely connected gatherings of individuals, such as crowds,
audiences, or lines of people; these groups form due to shared actions or interests but
dissolve quickly when the shared activity ends
Laura C. | Tilburg University
4
,categories – a social category is a group of individuals who share a common characteristic,
such as nationality, ethnicity, or gender
e.g.: Irish citizens and African Americans are social categories based on nationality and
ancestry
if a category has no social implications, it remains a simple classification of people
with a shared feature; however, when a category influences personal identity or social
interactions, it can become a powerful group
e.g.: celebrating St. Patrick’s day due to Irish heritage or people reacting differently to an
individual based on their racial background can turn a category into a socially meaningful
group
social identity refers to how individuals define themselves based on their
membership in a social group- it is a key part of self-concept, shaped by both
awareness of belonging to a group and the emotional significance attached to that
membership; social categories also influence how outsiders perceive members of a
group- when individuals categorize others as belonging to a certain group (“those
people”), they often rely on stereotypes to form opinions. this can lead to
misconceptions, biases, and social divisions, reinforcing an “us vs. them” mentality,
where people see themselves as part of an in-group while distinguishing others as
outsiders
Characteristics of groups
- groups possess various defining characteristics that influence their composition,
structure, and function; the key characteristics include:
composition (who belongs to the group?)
boundaries (who does not belong?)
size (how large is the group?)
interaction (what do members do?)
interdependence (do the members depend on each other?)
structure (how is the group organized?)
goals (what is the group’s purpose?)
origin (founded or formed?)
unity (how cohesive is the group?)
entitativity (does the group look like a group?)
composition – the individuals that make up the group define its nature; even if groups have
the same number of members, they will differ due to the uniqueness of each person
boundaries1 – groups have psychological or physical boundaries that determine who belongs
and who does not; some groups have open membership, allowing fluid participation
(=open groups), while others are closed, with limited or exclusive entry (=closed
groups)
1
Social Networks vs. Groups: Both social networks and groups connect individuals through relationships, but
they differ in structure and boundaries. Groups have clear membership and defined inclusion criteria, while
networks are fluid, allowing anyone to join by connecting with an existing member. Networks attract more
diverse individuals and range from weak to strong ties, whereas groups typically have stronger bonds and shared
identity.
5
Laura C. | Tilburg University
, regardless of the reasons for membership fluctuations, open groups are especially
unlikely to reach a state of equilibrium since members recognize that they may lose or
relinquish their place within the group at any time; members of such groups, especially those
in which membership is dependent on voting or meeting a particular standard, are more likely
to monitor the actions of others
closed groups are often more cohesive as competition for membership is irrelevant
and group members anticipate future collaborations. thus, in closed groups, individuals are
more likely to focus on the collective nature of the group and to identify with the group
size – the number of members impacts interaction and relationships; as group size increases,
direct interactions become more challenging, and members rely on indirect
connections; the maximum number of ties within a group in which everyone is linked
to everyone else is given by the equation n(n – 1)/2, where n is the number of people
in the group
because of the limits of most people’s capacity to keep track of so many social
relationships, once the group surpasses about 150 individuals, members usually cannot
connect with each and every member of the group => in larger groups, members are
connected to one another indirectly rather than directly
interaction – Bales recognized that group behaviour falls into two types:
o task interaction (work, projects, and goals)
o relationship interaction (social and emotional support)- if group members falter and need
support, others will buy them up with kind
words, suggestions, and other forms of help
effective groups balance both2
interdependence – members rely on each other
in varying degrees: in flat structures,
influence is equal and reciprocal
(=symmetric groups), whereas
hierarchical groups have unequal power
dynamics
structure – groups develop patterns of
organization, including:
o roles- specify the general behaviours
expected of people who occupy different
positions within the group (leader, follower,
decision-maker)
o norms- describe what behaviours should and should not be performed in each context
(=expected behaviours and rules)
o subgroups (when several members form a subgroup within the larger group, they exert
more influence on the rest of the group than they would individually)
2
Dunbar’s social brain hypothesis suggests that humans evolved larger brains to handle the complexities of
group life. Social living provides survival benefits but also requires tracking relationships, alliances, and
trustworthiness. Dunbar found that species with larger brains tend to live in bigger groups. Based on human
neocortex size, he estimated that humans are naturally suited for groups of 150 people or fewer, beyond which
information-processing becomes overwhelming
6
Laura C. | Tilburg University
,goals – groups set objectives that
influence their function/ task;
McGrath’s task model
distinguishes between:
o conceptual tasks-types 2 and 5-
(decision-making, problem-
solving)
o behavioural tasks- types 1, 6, 7,
8- (physical actions, production)
o cooperative tasks - types 1, 3,
and 8 - (collaboration)
o conflict tasks- types 4 and 7-
(competition)
=>groups dealing with conceptual
tasks (types 2–5) generally exhibit
high levels of information exchange,
social influence, and process-oriented activity;
groups dealing with behavioural tasks (types 1, 6, 7, 8) are those that produce things or
perform services- members of these groups perform a series of motor tasks that range from
the simple and relatively individualistic through to the complex and highly interdependent;
conflict tasks (types 4–7) pit individuals and groups against each other, whereas cooperative
tasks require collaboration (types 1–3, and 8)
some groups perform tasks from nearly all of McGrath’s categories, whereas others
concentrate on only one subset of goals
origin – groups are either planed or emergent:
o planned groups (deliberately created for a purpose, e.g., a study group)
planned groups tend to be organized, task-focused, and formal; they generally define their
membership criteria clearly and often operate under a set of bylaws, contracts or similar
regulations that describe the group’s acceptable procedures and practices; such groups,
despite their overall level of organization and definition, may also lack emotional substance
o emergent groups (formed spontaneously through repeated interaction)
emergent groups arise over time and through repeated association of the eventual
members; these groups are not explicitly organized, but they often develop elements of
structure; they have no written rules, but they likely develop unwritten norms that define
what behaviours are appropriate and what behaviours are inappropriate
unlike planned groups, membership in an emergent group is sought as a means in and of
itself: people don’t join to gain some goal but because they find satisfaction in associating
with the group members
additionally, groups can be categorized based on internal vs. external formation:
o concocted groups (created by outsiders, e.g., a flight crew)
o founded groups (created by members, e.g., a club)
o circumstantial groups (formed by external events, e.g., stranded travellers)
o self-organizing groups (formed naturally through interaction, e.g., social circles)
unity (cohesion) – group cohesion is the strength of social bonds among members, and it
determines the group's stability and commitment; more cohesive groups experience
less conflict and have stronger member loyalty
Laura C. | Tilburg University
7
,entitativity (perceived groupness)3 – the extent to which a group is seen as a real and
unified entity; factors that increase entitativity include similarity, proximity, shared
fate, and frequent interaction
based on entitativity ratings emerge four natural groupings:
o primary groups (family, close friends) have the highest entitativity
o social groups (work teams, clubs)
o categories (e.g., ethnic groups) are more abstract but still group-like
o collectives (crowds, waiting lines) have the lowest entitativity
What are group dynamics?
- group dynamics are the influential interpersonal processes that occur in and between
groups over time; they shape how groups function, evolve, and interact over time;
moreover, they influence member relationships, group cohesion, decision-making,
and overall group trajectory
e.g.: groups tend to become more cohesive over time
- key types of group processes include:
o formative processes (group formation and development)
o influence processes (how members affect each other)
o performance processes (task execution and productivity)
o conflict processes (disagreements and resolutions)
o contextual processes (external factors influencing the group)
- groups are dynamic, with relationships and interactions
constantly evolving, over time, patterns of likes, dislikes,
influence, power struggles, and social pressures shape group
functioning
Tuckman’s Five-Stage Model of Group Development
outlines this process:
o forming – members become acquainted and oriented toward one
another
o storming – conflicts arise as members compete for status and define goals
o norming – structure develops, and group norms are established
3
The Thomas Theorem states that if people define situations as real, they have real consequences. Applied to
groups, when people perceive a group as real and unified (high entitativity), it affects both members and
outsiders.
For members: High entitativity increases group identification, commitment, and shared values.
Members feel more bonded and accept group outcomes as their own.
For outsiders: High entitativity leads to stereotyping and biases, as perceivers assume group members
are interchangeable and share the same traits. 8
Laura C. | Tilburg University
,o performing – the group focuses on tasks, collaboration, and productivity
o adjourning – the group dissolves after achieving its purpose or completing its task
Why study groups?
- groups tend to be powerful rather than weak, active rather than passive, and fluid
rather than static; Lewin also used the term group dynamics to describe the scientific
discipline devoted to the study of these dynamics
- we study groups to understand people and the social world, and to use this knowledge
to find solutions to practical problems
- groups shape individuals' attitudes, values, and behaviours, yet people often overlook
their influence, focusing instead on individuals- this bias, linked to the fundamental
attribution error (FAE), leads to attributing actions to personal traits rather than group
dynamics
- researchers argue that people behave differently in groups, conforming to pressures
they might resist alone; social values shift from family to peer groups and broader
networks over time; while group influence is often temporary, high-control groups
like cults can cause lasting changes in beliefs and behaviour
- people acquire their attitudes, values, identities, skills, and principles in groups
- Hofstede’s theory of national cultures: Hofstede’s theory identifies key cultural
dimensions that highlight differences in values and norms across societies:
o power distance index (PDI) – measures inequality in social hierarchy
o individualism (IDV) – differentiates between individualistic and group-oriented cultures
o masculinity (MAS) – assesses the emphasis on competition, assertiveness, and traditional
gender roles
o uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) – evaluates how cultures manage uncertainty and
ambiguity
- studying groups is key to understanding individuals, organizations, and society;
groups serve as microstructures that connect people to the larger social system- from
tribal communities to modern societies, groups shape culture, institutions, and social
structures; legal, political, religious, educational, and economic systems all rely on
small groups and interconnected subgroups to function and evolve
- understanding groups and their dynamics is crucial for achieving goals, as groups
create, produce, and make key decisions in society; they drive industries, governance,
and innovation; this practical significance gives group dynamics an interdisciplinary
nature, relevant across multiple fields
The value of groups
- philosophers and scholars have long debated whether groups are beneficial or
harmful; while groups foster cooperation, they also breed conflict, competition, and
poor decision-making, sometimes leading to violence or disaster; large groups, such
as crowds, can drive individuals to act in ways they wouldn’t alone
- while groups can and do result in challenges, hardships and even disaster for their
members and for society, they are so beneficial, if not essential to humans: they shape
our values, beliefs, and social identity, provide support in uncertainty, and teach
conflict resolution; groups are the foundation of social existence, making their study
crucial for understanding human behaviour
Laura C. | Tilburg University
9
, Chapter 2 | Studying groups
- group dynamics, the scientific field devoted to the
study of groups and their dynamics, resulted from group
processes; these group processes shaped the field’s paradigm
(Kuhn used that term to describe scientists’ shared
assumptions about the phenomena they study; Kuhn
maintained that when scientists learn their field, they master
not only the content of the science, but also a way of looking
at the world that is passed on from one scientist to another;
the paradigm determines the questions they consider worth
studying, using the methods that are most appropriate)
- Le Bon concluded individuals are transformed when they join a group; Wundt, the
prominent psychologist of that time, published his book Völkerspsychologie: group
psychology, where he binds elements of anthropology and psychology, exploring how
groups influence members’ cognition and perception
- early theorists disagreed about the level of analysis to take when studying groups;
some supported a group-level approach (group-level analysis), emphasizing how
groups shape individuals, while others preferred an individual-level focus
(individual-level analysis) on personal traits and psychological processes (attitudes,
motivations) of the individuals in the group; Durkheim, advocating for group-level
analysis, traced suicide to social factors and emphasized the role of collective
representations (= widely shared beliefs) in shaping society
- some researchers argued that group behaviour could be explained solely through
individual psychology; Allport, for example, rejected the idea that groups are real
entities, instead viewing them as the sum of individual actions- he warned against the
group fallacy, emphasizing that only individuals think and feel, while attributing
these traits to a group lacks clear meaning
- group mind (or collective consciousness): the concept of group mind (or collective
consciousness) highlighted the divide between group-level and individual-level
perspectives; Le Bon and Durkheim argued that groups possess unique characteristics
beyond individual members, linked by a shared “esprit de group”
opposing this view, individual-level theorists4 acknowledged that group members
often behave similarly but rejected the idea of a shared mental state; Allport instead
described “collective structures”, where individuals are connected but remain
psychologically independent
- the reality of groups: while no evidence supports the idea of a psychic group mind,
group-level concepts like norms are real and influential; norms are shared standards
within a group, not just individual preferences, and only function when members
collectively agree
Sherif’s research showed that individuals adjust their judgments to align with group
norms, even when making independent decisions, since norms persist beyond individual
members, they exist at the group level, not just within individuals (only when members agree
4
Researchers who preferred to study individuals in groups and not groups themselves were willing to concede
that group members often act as if they were of one mind – they all respond very similarly – but they rejected
the idea that group members shared a single conscious mental state.
10
Laura C. | Tilburg University
