Chapter 1: What is sociology?
Sociology is the scientific study of social groups, societies, and the human world, exploring
everything from brief interactions to shifts in family life, identity, and international relationships. It
encourages us to look beyond our immediate experiences and question what we often take for
granted, revealing how our actions and beliefs are shaped by historical events and social contexts.
This way of thinking, known as the "sociological imagination," was coined by C. Wright Mills, who
argued that to understand social life, we must step back from our perspectives and view them in a
broader social context.
At its core, sociology seeks to understand "society"—a community of people who share territory,
language, values, and norms, along with structured institutions like government, education, and
family. These institutions and their interrelationships form society’s basic structure, which, though
appearing stable, is continually shaped and reshaped by human actions.
Using a sociological imagination helps us see how individual experiences, like divorce or
unemployment, reflect broader social issues. For example, while divorce may be a personal
hardship, it also raises public concerns such as pension needs and housing demands. Similarly,
individual job loss can reflect wider economic trends when experienced by many.
Though our lives are influenced by social contexts, they are not fully determined by them. Sociology
examines the dynamic relationship between individuals and society—how we shape the social world
while being shaped by it. Human societies are continuously recreated through an ongoing process of
"structuration," meaning that even the most stable social structures depend on the actions of
individuals, who collectively maintain and transform them.
The developments of sociological thinking
Sociologists often disagree on how to study human behaviour and interpret findings, a natural part
of any scientific discipline. Unlike subjects like physics or chemistry, sociology involves studying
ourselves, which can challenge deeply held beliefs and assumptions. This makes it important for
sociologists to set aside personal biases to ensure accurate and valid conclusions.
To avoid random or misleading interpretations, sociologists rely on general theories, which help
frame facts within a broader context. Theorizing involves developing abstract explanations that
connect logically to empirical evidence. For instance, a theory on social media would examine the
development of information technology and its factors for success. Effective sociology closely links
theoretical explanations with empirical testing, as theories need evidence to move beyond
speculation.
Interpreting social data isn’t simply a matter of collecting facts; it requires theoretical context.
Although practical-minded people may be sceptical of theories, every practical decision is based on
some theoretical assumptions. Theory shapes what sociologists look for, how they interpret their
findings, and even guides the fundamental approach to studying social life.
Founders of sociology
The systematic study of social life emerged from the major upheavals brought by the French
Revolution of 1789 and the Industrial Revolution in Europe. These events disrupted traditional ways
, of living, prompting early sociologists to investigate the causes of such radical changes. In doing so,
they developed more scientific perspectives on society and nature, which often challenged
established religious views.
These early sociologists played a crucial role in establishing sociology as an academic field, primarily
focused on understanding the modern world, or “modernity,” as it unfolded in Europe and North
America. However, over the past few decades, postcolonial scholars have critiqued this Eurocentric
view of sociology’s origins and development. They argue that sociology has historically overlooked
the severe impact of colonialism on the Global South, where the effects of exploitation persist long
after independence. Furthermore, the exclusion of Global South perspectives has shaped sociology
with a predominantly Eurocentric outlook that centres on the industrialized nations of the Global
North.
Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced the term "sociology" around 1840, initially calling it "social
physics" until competing scholars adopted that term. To set his approach apart, he coined
"sociology" as the systematic study of society. Comte aimed to establish a science of society, akin to
natural sciences, to uncover social "laws" that could guide societal improvement. He believed each
scientific discipline had its domain but could follow a unified scientific method. By identifying the
laws governing society, he hoped to empower humanity to shape its future and enhance collective
well-being.
Comte envisioned sociology as a "positive science," applying methods like those used in astronomy,
physics, and chemistry. This positivist approach focuses only on observable phenomena and aims to
derive laws from careful observation, comparison, and experimentation, enabling predictions about
societal patterns. Comte proposed that human understanding has evolved through three stages: the
theological (guided by religious beliefs), the metaphysical (interpreting society through natural laws),
and finally, the positive stage, where scientific methods illuminate social life.
Later in life, Comte became increasingly aware of industrialization's inequalities and the risks they
posed to social cohesion. He envisioned a "religion of humanity" to create moral consensus and
mitigate these tensions, though this vision went unrealized. Despite this, Comte's foundational work
helped professionalize sociology, establishing it as a distinct and legitimate scientific discipline.
Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) made a more lasting impact on sociology than his predecessor,
Auguste Comte. Durkheim defined sociology as a science that transforms philosophical questions
into empirical inquiries, urging sociologists to study social life with scientific objectivity. His famous
phrase, "study social facts as things," captures his view that social institutions have a tangible,
objective reality, enabling them to be analysed with the same rigour as natural phenomena.
Durkheim defined social facts as institutions and norms that guide and constrain individual
behaviours, often experienced as external pressures, though people generally accept them as
"natural" or "normal." Durkheim’s work focused on social and moral solidarity—what binds society
together. He argued in *The Division of Labour in Society* that traditional societies with low division
of Labor were characterized by *mechanical solidarity*, where individuals shared similar
Sociology is the scientific study of social groups, societies, and the human world, exploring
everything from brief interactions to shifts in family life, identity, and international relationships. It
encourages us to look beyond our immediate experiences and question what we often take for
granted, revealing how our actions and beliefs are shaped by historical events and social contexts.
This way of thinking, known as the "sociological imagination," was coined by C. Wright Mills, who
argued that to understand social life, we must step back from our perspectives and view them in a
broader social context.
At its core, sociology seeks to understand "society"—a community of people who share territory,
language, values, and norms, along with structured institutions like government, education, and
family. These institutions and their interrelationships form society’s basic structure, which, though
appearing stable, is continually shaped and reshaped by human actions.
Using a sociological imagination helps us see how individual experiences, like divorce or
unemployment, reflect broader social issues. For example, while divorce may be a personal
hardship, it also raises public concerns such as pension needs and housing demands. Similarly,
individual job loss can reflect wider economic trends when experienced by many.
Though our lives are influenced by social contexts, they are not fully determined by them. Sociology
examines the dynamic relationship between individuals and society—how we shape the social world
while being shaped by it. Human societies are continuously recreated through an ongoing process of
"structuration," meaning that even the most stable social structures depend on the actions of
individuals, who collectively maintain and transform them.
The developments of sociological thinking
Sociologists often disagree on how to study human behaviour and interpret findings, a natural part
of any scientific discipline. Unlike subjects like physics or chemistry, sociology involves studying
ourselves, which can challenge deeply held beliefs and assumptions. This makes it important for
sociologists to set aside personal biases to ensure accurate and valid conclusions.
To avoid random or misleading interpretations, sociologists rely on general theories, which help
frame facts within a broader context. Theorizing involves developing abstract explanations that
connect logically to empirical evidence. For instance, a theory on social media would examine the
development of information technology and its factors for success. Effective sociology closely links
theoretical explanations with empirical testing, as theories need evidence to move beyond
speculation.
Interpreting social data isn’t simply a matter of collecting facts; it requires theoretical context.
Although practical-minded people may be sceptical of theories, every practical decision is based on
some theoretical assumptions. Theory shapes what sociologists look for, how they interpret their
findings, and even guides the fundamental approach to studying social life.
Founders of sociology
The systematic study of social life emerged from the major upheavals brought by the French
Revolution of 1789 and the Industrial Revolution in Europe. These events disrupted traditional ways
, of living, prompting early sociologists to investigate the causes of such radical changes. In doing so,
they developed more scientific perspectives on society and nature, which often challenged
established religious views.
These early sociologists played a crucial role in establishing sociology as an academic field, primarily
focused on understanding the modern world, or “modernity,” as it unfolded in Europe and North
America. However, over the past few decades, postcolonial scholars have critiqued this Eurocentric
view of sociology’s origins and development. They argue that sociology has historically overlooked
the severe impact of colonialism on the Global South, where the effects of exploitation persist long
after independence. Furthermore, the exclusion of Global South perspectives has shaped sociology
with a predominantly Eurocentric outlook that centres on the industrialized nations of the Global
North.
Auguste Comte
Auguste Comte (1798–1857) introduced the term "sociology" around 1840, initially calling it "social
physics" until competing scholars adopted that term. To set his approach apart, he coined
"sociology" as the systematic study of society. Comte aimed to establish a science of society, akin to
natural sciences, to uncover social "laws" that could guide societal improvement. He believed each
scientific discipline had its domain but could follow a unified scientific method. By identifying the
laws governing society, he hoped to empower humanity to shape its future and enhance collective
well-being.
Comte envisioned sociology as a "positive science," applying methods like those used in astronomy,
physics, and chemistry. This positivist approach focuses only on observable phenomena and aims to
derive laws from careful observation, comparison, and experimentation, enabling predictions about
societal patterns. Comte proposed that human understanding has evolved through three stages: the
theological (guided by religious beliefs), the metaphysical (interpreting society through natural laws),
and finally, the positive stage, where scientific methods illuminate social life.
Later in life, Comte became increasingly aware of industrialization's inequalities and the risks they
posed to social cohesion. He envisioned a "religion of humanity" to create moral consensus and
mitigate these tensions, though this vision went unrealized. Despite this, Comte's foundational work
helped professionalize sociology, establishing it as a distinct and legitimate scientific discipline.
Emile Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858–1917) made a more lasting impact on sociology than his predecessor,
Auguste Comte. Durkheim defined sociology as a science that transforms philosophical questions
into empirical inquiries, urging sociologists to study social life with scientific objectivity. His famous
phrase, "study social facts as things," captures his view that social institutions have a tangible,
objective reality, enabling them to be analysed with the same rigour as natural phenomena.
Durkheim defined social facts as institutions and norms that guide and constrain individual
behaviours, often experienced as external pressures, though people generally accept them as
"natural" or "normal." Durkheim’s work focused on social and moral solidarity—what binds society
together. He argued in *The Division of Labour in Society* that traditional societies with low division
of Labor were characterized by *mechanical solidarity*, where individuals shared similar
