CHAPTER 1 - FOUNDATIONS OF RESEARCH METHODS
● Research: Research is a type of systematic investigation that is empirical in nature and
designed to contribute to public knowledge.
○ Systematic investigation: Organized approach of conducting research.
○ Empirical endeavor: Reliance on observable and measurable evidence, gathered
through observation or experimentation
○ Public effort: Not only for personal knowledge, but contributing to a broader body
● Research Syntheses: systematic study of multiple prior research projects. Major types:
○ Meta-analysis (quantitative, uses statistical methods to combine results)
○ Systematic review (qualitative, group of people who focus on specific question or
issue)
● Where research topics come from: Practical problems, Literature, RFPs from governments or
companies
● Translational Research: When we put discovery into practice, and ultimately impact our
lives. Process is called research-practice continuum, and follows the following steps;
1. Basic research: generate discoveries and understand them
2. Applied research: Test discoveries to assess feasibility
3. Implementation and Dissemination research: evaluate how well it can be implemented and
disseminated across various context (beyond original study)
4. Policy research: If discovery lead to development of new policies, this step studies the
policies
5. Impact research: Assesses the broader effects; how it influences lives
● Evidence-Based Practice (EBP): Employ practices that are based on evidence from other
research. Substitutes that undermine its effectiveness:
○ Common Sense: Beliefs that are generally accepted without needing proof. Prone to
biases
○ Evidence-Obsolete knowledge: Outdated information, have been disproven or
revised by more recent research
○ Personal Experience: Is not representative for others, can not be generalized
○ Specialist Skills: Refer to expertise or techniques. Should be complemented with
evidence
○ Hype: Exaggerated claims, based on popularity
● Variables: Elements or factors that can change or vary in a study.
○ Can be quantitative or qualitative (answer in words). Attribute: specific value on a
variable (options you can choose). Each attribute should be exhaustive (include all
possible responses) and mutually exclusive (can’t be two options at the same time)
○ Independent variable = the cause. Variables that are changed/manipulated to assess
the effect on dependent variable
, ○ Dependent variable = the effect. measured to assess the impact of the independent
variable of it. You’re testing this one, how is the dependent variable changing due to
the independent variable?
○ Moderator: When or under what conditions can IV affect DV? In between both
○ Mediator: Explains how or why IV influences DV
○ Confounding variables: uncontrolled variables that can affect the dependent
variable, potentially skewing the results.
● Deductive reasoning: from more general to specific (theory to confirmation), based on
existing theories / hypothesis -> top down
● Inductive reasoning: From specific to broad (observations to theory), exploring and
generating new insights -> bottom up
● Hypotheses: Testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Ha is the
hypothesis where you predict something. H0 is the remaining possible outcome
● Curvilinear relationship: not linear, if one variable changes the other one changes to a
certain point and then decreases (or vise versa)
● Research Vocabulary: Key terms like population (the entire group being studied), sample (a
subset of the population), and operational definitions (specific explanations of abstract
concepts).
● Key aspects social research:
○ Theoretical: developing, exploring or testing theories how social phenomena operate.
formulate hypothesis based on existing knowledge
○ Empirical: grounded in direct observations and measurements. Collecting data
through systematic observation, opposed to relying solely on theoretical
○ Probabilistic: instead of claiming the absolute truth, it focuses on probabilities and
patterns. It acknowledges uncertainties in social phenomena
○ Causal: investigates cause-effect relation
● Time in research: Cross-sectional (take place at one point in time) and Longitudinal
(multiple points in time. Can be ‘repeated measures’ when you have two or more
measurements, or ‘Time series’ when you have many measurements)
● Validity: Refers to how accurately a study reflects or assesses the specific concept it aims to
measure. Validity Types:
○ Conclusion Validity: If there is a relationship.
○ Internal Validity: if the relation is causal.
● Threats to Internal validity:
Confounding variables, Selection bias
(if participants are not randomly
selected, existing differences may
influence results), Maturation
(changes in participants over time)
● Improve Internal validity: Random
assignment (minimize existing
differences), control groups (allows comparison)
● Research: Research is a type of systematic investigation that is empirical in nature and
designed to contribute to public knowledge.
○ Systematic investigation: Organized approach of conducting research.
○ Empirical endeavor: Reliance on observable and measurable evidence, gathered
through observation or experimentation
○ Public effort: Not only for personal knowledge, but contributing to a broader body
● Research Syntheses: systematic study of multiple prior research projects. Major types:
○ Meta-analysis (quantitative, uses statistical methods to combine results)
○ Systematic review (qualitative, group of people who focus on specific question or
issue)
● Where research topics come from: Practical problems, Literature, RFPs from governments or
companies
● Translational Research: When we put discovery into practice, and ultimately impact our
lives. Process is called research-practice continuum, and follows the following steps;
1. Basic research: generate discoveries and understand them
2. Applied research: Test discoveries to assess feasibility
3. Implementation and Dissemination research: evaluate how well it can be implemented and
disseminated across various context (beyond original study)
4. Policy research: If discovery lead to development of new policies, this step studies the
policies
5. Impact research: Assesses the broader effects; how it influences lives
● Evidence-Based Practice (EBP): Employ practices that are based on evidence from other
research. Substitutes that undermine its effectiveness:
○ Common Sense: Beliefs that are generally accepted without needing proof. Prone to
biases
○ Evidence-Obsolete knowledge: Outdated information, have been disproven or
revised by more recent research
○ Personal Experience: Is not representative for others, can not be generalized
○ Specialist Skills: Refer to expertise or techniques. Should be complemented with
evidence
○ Hype: Exaggerated claims, based on popularity
● Variables: Elements or factors that can change or vary in a study.
○ Can be quantitative or qualitative (answer in words). Attribute: specific value on a
variable (options you can choose). Each attribute should be exhaustive (include all
possible responses) and mutually exclusive (can’t be two options at the same time)
○ Independent variable = the cause. Variables that are changed/manipulated to assess
the effect on dependent variable
, ○ Dependent variable = the effect. measured to assess the impact of the independent
variable of it. You’re testing this one, how is the dependent variable changing due to
the independent variable?
○ Moderator: When or under what conditions can IV affect DV? In between both
○ Mediator: Explains how or why IV influences DV
○ Confounding variables: uncontrolled variables that can affect the dependent
variable, potentially skewing the results.
● Deductive reasoning: from more general to specific (theory to confirmation), based on
existing theories / hypothesis -> top down
● Inductive reasoning: From specific to broad (observations to theory), exploring and
generating new insights -> bottom up
● Hypotheses: Testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Ha is the
hypothesis where you predict something. H0 is the remaining possible outcome
● Curvilinear relationship: not linear, if one variable changes the other one changes to a
certain point and then decreases (or vise versa)
● Research Vocabulary: Key terms like population (the entire group being studied), sample (a
subset of the population), and operational definitions (specific explanations of abstract
concepts).
● Key aspects social research:
○ Theoretical: developing, exploring or testing theories how social phenomena operate.
formulate hypothesis based on existing knowledge
○ Empirical: grounded in direct observations and measurements. Collecting data
through systematic observation, opposed to relying solely on theoretical
○ Probabilistic: instead of claiming the absolute truth, it focuses on probabilities and
patterns. It acknowledges uncertainties in social phenomena
○ Causal: investigates cause-effect relation
● Time in research: Cross-sectional (take place at one point in time) and Longitudinal
(multiple points in time. Can be ‘repeated measures’ when you have two or more
measurements, or ‘Time series’ when you have many measurements)
● Validity: Refers to how accurately a study reflects or assesses the specific concept it aims to
measure. Validity Types:
○ Conclusion Validity: If there is a relationship.
○ Internal Validity: if the relation is causal.
● Threats to Internal validity:
Confounding variables, Selection bias
(if participants are not randomly
selected, existing differences may
influence results), Maturation
(changes in participants over time)
● Improve Internal validity: Random
assignment (minimize existing
differences), control groups (allows comparison)
