Sociology – Chapter 1 What do sociologists do?
Sociologists study people in groups using the scientific method.
Society is made up of:
The individual (lowest level of analysis)
Two people – Dyad
Organizations and businesses
States and countries
World
These levels of analysing society can be seen as a pyramid. In which the individuals and the dyads
form the biggest groups for sociologists to analyse.
The scientific method is the wheel of science:
conclusions theory hypothesis observations and testing
The step where a theory is made is at the top of the wheel, because it is central to all science.
Sociologists use theories for developing general explanations of particular social phenomena.
Theories are explanations of particular social phenomena.
Propositions give the relationship between two factors or characteristics that vary from case to case.
Theories are made up of several propositions. The most specific proposition becomes the
hypothesis. The hypothesis can be tested. If the hypothesis cannot be tested with data, it is called a
belief.
Social psychological theories are theories about individuals in small groups.
At different kind of levels of analysis theories should be compatible with each other.
Experimental methods are used to test hypotheses.
Experimental manipulation: one group undergoes the manipulation, the other doesn’t.
Microsociological research is research that has individuals and small groups as the units of analysis.
A field research or ethnographic research is a research in which a researcher visits the group under
study and physically observes what goes on in the group.
Particularly popular in the early years of sociology
Survey research is a research in which a researcher surveys a group to find answers to a variety of
questions and then analyses the results.
Analysis of existing data from existing records is another way to study very large groups of people.
At the end phase sociologists determine whether the data support their hypotheses. Based on this,
the theory may need to be revises. The whole process will begin again.
Positivism is the view that social phenomena can be studies like any other phenomena.
Sociological research must be objective and ethically neutral.
Pitfalls in sociology are that researchers do not see what is actually there. This happens consciously
and or unconsciously.
,Postmodernism is a development of school in the 1980s and 1990s.
Complete objectivity is impossible.
Our independent standpoint makes it impossible to see our, or any society, as it really is.
Being ethically neutral is impossible.
There are no truly objective facts.
Deconstruction is the name given to the process in which a biased point of view of one particular
group appeared.
Critique to postmodernism
Without objective facts the entire scientific endeavour would break down.
No approach can reveal the truth, including postmodernism.
Reactivity is the situation in which the things that are being studied go on. (page 13)
Unobtrusive methods are methods that are chosen to limit or eliminate reactivity.
Collecting information on behaviour that has already happened.
Watching subjects without their awareness.
Some hypotheses are not tested because of the fear to have a negative result, such as sex
differences.
Essence of the sociological perspective is to examine people as situated in a social context and
understanding their actions and behaviours as a result of that social context.
Westermarck showed that the social setting influences the brain and then in turn to the biological
affects the social.
Sociological imagination is the process of understanding ourselves better by understanding how we
are influenced by our social setting. The sociological imagination is the ability to understand how
private troubles reflect public issues.
, Chapter 2 Biology
Humans first emerged as species in Africa during the Pleistocene. After the species have been moved
to other continents a local evolution emerged. This evolution particularly affected traits such as skin
color en eye shape. These traits adapted the human groups to ecological conditions in their homes.
Our ancestors had a selection for food preference and we all inherit this preference.
The situation and (social) environment are always crucially important in shaping the expression of
genes and the brain functions involved.
Material resources and a social status were important for our ancestors to survive and reproduce.
Reciprocal altruism is the exchange of services or favours between individuals.
Kin-based altruism is the altruistic behaviour towards those who share your genes.
One sex shoulders a greater burden of the biological cost of parenting, which is in most species the
female.
The difference in size between a male gamete en female gamete is called anisogamy.
There is a selection for distinct male and female psychologies when it comes to mating and
parenting.
Norm is what is expected or typical in a particular circumstance.
Role is the et of typical behaviours expected of a person in a particular social position.
People with a predisposing for a behaviour are more likely to behave that way than someone who
does not have that genes.
Hormones are part of evolved biological makeup and also influence behaviour. Changing level of
hormones has consequences. Hormones are also involved in feedback effects.
Arguments for having innate predispositions towards religious beliefs and behaviour:
Religious beliefs and behaviour are promoted by predispositions that originally evolved from
a different purpose.
Religious behaviour is directly promoted by predispositions towards religiosity that were
adaptive in the evolutionary environment.
Naturalistic fallacy is the idea that if it is natural is has to be good.
Sociologists study people in groups using the scientific method.
Society is made up of:
The individual (lowest level of analysis)
Two people – Dyad
Organizations and businesses
States and countries
World
These levels of analysing society can be seen as a pyramid. In which the individuals and the dyads
form the biggest groups for sociologists to analyse.
The scientific method is the wheel of science:
conclusions theory hypothesis observations and testing
The step where a theory is made is at the top of the wheel, because it is central to all science.
Sociologists use theories for developing general explanations of particular social phenomena.
Theories are explanations of particular social phenomena.
Propositions give the relationship between two factors or characteristics that vary from case to case.
Theories are made up of several propositions. The most specific proposition becomes the
hypothesis. The hypothesis can be tested. If the hypothesis cannot be tested with data, it is called a
belief.
Social psychological theories are theories about individuals in small groups.
At different kind of levels of analysis theories should be compatible with each other.
Experimental methods are used to test hypotheses.
Experimental manipulation: one group undergoes the manipulation, the other doesn’t.
Microsociological research is research that has individuals and small groups as the units of analysis.
A field research or ethnographic research is a research in which a researcher visits the group under
study and physically observes what goes on in the group.
Particularly popular in the early years of sociology
Survey research is a research in which a researcher surveys a group to find answers to a variety of
questions and then analyses the results.
Analysis of existing data from existing records is another way to study very large groups of people.
At the end phase sociologists determine whether the data support their hypotheses. Based on this,
the theory may need to be revises. The whole process will begin again.
Positivism is the view that social phenomena can be studies like any other phenomena.
Sociological research must be objective and ethically neutral.
Pitfalls in sociology are that researchers do not see what is actually there. This happens consciously
and or unconsciously.
,Postmodernism is a development of school in the 1980s and 1990s.
Complete objectivity is impossible.
Our independent standpoint makes it impossible to see our, or any society, as it really is.
Being ethically neutral is impossible.
There are no truly objective facts.
Deconstruction is the name given to the process in which a biased point of view of one particular
group appeared.
Critique to postmodernism
Without objective facts the entire scientific endeavour would break down.
No approach can reveal the truth, including postmodernism.
Reactivity is the situation in which the things that are being studied go on. (page 13)
Unobtrusive methods are methods that are chosen to limit or eliminate reactivity.
Collecting information on behaviour that has already happened.
Watching subjects without their awareness.
Some hypotheses are not tested because of the fear to have a negative result, such as sex
differences.
Essence of the sociological perspective is to examine people as situated in a social context and
understanding their actions and behaviours as a result of that social context.
Westermarck showed that the social setting influences the brain and then in turn to the biological
affects the social.
Sociological imagination is the process of understanding ourselves better by understanding how we
are influenced by our social setting. The sociological imagination is the ability to understand how
private troubles reflect public issues.
, Chapter 2 Biology
Humans first emerged as species in Africa during the Pleistocene. After the species have been moved
to other continents a local evolution emerged. This evolution particularly affected traits such as skin
color en eye shape. These traits adapted the human groups to ecological conditions in their homes.
Our ancestors had a selection for food preference and we all inherit this preference.
The situation and (social) environment are always crucially important in shaping the expression of
genes and the brain functions involved.
Material resources and a social status were important for our ancestors to survive and reproduce.
Reciprocal altruism is the exchange of services or favours between individuals.
Kin-based altruism is the altruistic behaviour towards those who share your genes.
One sex shoulders a greater burden of the biological cost of parenting, which is in most species the
female.
The difference in size between a male gamete en female gamete is called anisogamy.
There is a selection for distinct male and female psychologies when it comes to mating and
parenting.
Norm is what is expected or typical in a particular circumstance.
Role is the et of typical behaviours expected of a person in a particular social position.
People with a predisposing for a behaviour are more likely to behave that way than someone who
does not have that genes.
Hormones are part of evolved biological makeup and also influence behaviour. Changing level of
hormones has consequences. Hormones are also involved in feedback effects.
Arguments for having innate predispositions towards religious beliefs and behaviour:
Religious beliefs and behaviour are promoted by predispositions that originally evolved from
a different purpose.
Religious behaviour is directly promoted by predispositions towards religiosity that were
adaptive in the evolutionary environment.
Naturalistic fallacy is the idea that if it is natural is has to be good.
