Summary book- Marketing Communications
Chapter 3 – How marketing communications work
Hierarchy-of-effects models
The oldest marketing communication models are hierarchy-of-effects models, which assume that things have to happen in a
certain order, implying that the earlier effects form necessary conditions in order for the later effects to occur. The sequence is often
cognitive (mental processes; awareness and knowledge) → affective (emotional responses) → conative (undertaking action).
Alternative models are low-involvement hierarchy-of-effects model, in which consumers buy the product and decide afterwards
how they feel about it, or the experimental hierarchy-of-effects model, in which consumers’ affective responses toward a product
lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later. The Foote-Cone-Belding (FCB) grid of Vaughn is an integration of
these different models, including four different situations, based on high vs low involvement and think vs feel.
Think Feel
High involvement Think Learn Feel Emotionally attracted
Feel Decide Think Collects information
Do Buy Do Buy
Cars, furniture, loans, appliances Jewellery, perfume, fashion
Do Buy Do Buy
Think Learn (dis)advantages Feel Experience affective response
Feel Form attitude Think Gather knowledge
Low involvement Detergents, food, toilet paper Sweets, soft drinks, ice cream
The Rossiter-Percy grid also includes four different situations, based on high vs low involvement and fulfilling a transformational
(positive) vs informational (reduce negative) buying motive.
Both grids contain characteristics of consumers in a buying decisions and not product categories, so it can differ per consumer and
be used as segmentation and positioning tool. Also, these models recognize the important of brand awareness. Companies strive
to reach top-of-mind awareness (TOMA), which increases the likelihood to be purchased. Research found significant relations
between ad characteristics and recall, and ad characteristics and attitudes and purchase intentions, but not between recall and
attitudes. Additionally, these models don’t allow interaction between stages, which is unlikely.
Attitude formation and change
An attitude is a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, etc., which can measure how much a
person (dis)likes a brand. Brand attitudes are relatively stable, but can change over time. An attitude can be assumed to consist of
three components:
1. The cognitive component reflects knowledge, beliefs and evaluations of the object
2. The affective component represents the feelings associated with the object
3. The behavioural component refers to action readiness (behavioural intentions) with
respect to the object
Consumers follow different process, so a lot of communication models give an adequate
explanation for particular situations only. These models can be classified along two dimensions:
• Cognitive, affective or behavioural formed attitudes, which can be compared to the think-feel
dimension of the FCB grid
• Level of elaboration of message (or central-
route versus peripheral-route processing),
which can be compared to the involvement
dimension of the FCB grid.
We can extend this to motivation, ability and
opportunity (MAO).
• Motivation is influenced by consumer
needs and goals and can be categorized
into:
o Functional needs reflect solving
consumer problems (information
motivation in Rossiter-Percy grid)
o Symbolic needs reflect how we see
ourselves and how we would like to be
perceived by others
o Hedonic needs reflect consumers’
desires for sensory pleasure
Motivation can also be classified as
approach or promotions goals (positive
outcomes), and avoidance or prevention
, goals (avoid negative outcomes). So, in order to be persuasive, marketing communications should tap into consumers’
motivational concepts and marketers need to understand what goals consumers are trying to accomplish by buying the
product. But, one may be motivated, but may be unable to do it.
• Ability refers to the resources needed to achieve a particular goal.
• Opportunity deals with the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain the goal set.
The MAO factors are presented in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). If all three are high, consumers are expected to
engage in central-route processing (elaborate information, evaluate arguments), which will influence positive, negative or neutral
attitudes. These attitudes are good predictors and fairly resistant to persuasion. If one or more of the AMO factors is/are low,
consumers use simple, peripheral cues to evaluate information – the peripheral-route processing. These attitudes can easily be
changed. Both rational arguments and affects may give rise to peripheral and central processing, which depends on consumers’
goals and not MAO factors. E.g. consumers who focus on ideals consider affective information but when consumers’ oughts, they
focus on cognitive information. We divide six types of marketing communications, based on low vs high elaboration likelihood and
cognitive, affective or behavioural attitude component.
High elaboration likelihood, cognitive attitude formation
1. Multiple attribute models
Examples are the Expectancy-Value model or Fishbein
model. Brand attitudes is made up from relevant product
attributes, the extent to which one believes the brand
possesses these attributes, and the evaluation of these
attributes. In short: brand attitude = weighted sum of brand
beliefs x attribute evaluations.
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) is an extension
and includes the subjective norm, which comprises the
belief one holds regarding what different reference groups consider as socially desirable behaviour, weighted by the consumer’s
need or willingness to behave according to the norms of the particular reference group (social sensitivity).
This can be extended to the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB), which includes perceived
behavioural control (PBC): the perceived ease or
difficulty of performing the behaviour and it is
assumed to reflect past experience as well as
anticipated impediments and obstacles.
Marketing communicators can try to change attributes by changing brand
beliefs, by changing attribute evaluations or by adding attributes. They can
also try to change the opinion of others, raise or lowering social sensitivity for
specific significant others, or influence perceived behavioural control
2. Self-generated persuasion
The consumer is not persuaded by strong brand arguments, but by his or her own thoughts arguments or imagined consequences.
The consumer combines the information in the message with previous experience and knowledge, and tries to image him- or
herself consuming the product and the consequences thereof.
Low elaboration likelihood, cognitive attitude formation
3. Heuristic evaluation
If one of the MAO factors is low, consumers will make inferences based on the peripheral cues in the ad. It is also called satisficing
choice process, because consumers settle for a satisfactory or acceptable brand choice. Examples are the attractiveness,
expertise, and status of the source, the number of sources, the number of arguments, the reputation and layout of the message, or
the price, design or country of origin of the product. Another example is the use of celebrities.
High elaboration likelihood, affective attitude formation
4. Affect-as-information
The affect-as-information model posits that consumers may use feelings as a source of information to form an overall evaluation of
a product or brand, not by means of a simple association, but through a controlled inferential process or deliberate manner. Often
‘how-do-I-feel-about-it’ is used, e.g. by imagining the product. But, people don’t inspect their mood states at that moment, but their
Chapter 3 – How marketing communications work
Hierarchy-of-effects models
The oldest marketing communication models are hierarchy-of-effects models, which assume that things have to happen in a
certain order, implying that the earlier effects form necessary conditions in order for the later effects to occur. The sequence is often
cognitive (mental processes; awareness and knowledge) → affective (emotional responses) → conative (undertaking action).
Alternative models are low-involvement hierarchy-of-effects model, in which consumers buy the product and decide afterwards
how they feel about it, or the experimental hierarchy-of-effects model, in which consumers’ affective responses toward a product
lead them to buy it and, if necessary, they reflect on it later. The Foote-Cone-Belding (FCB) grid of Vaughn is an integration of
these different models, including four different situations, based on high vs low involvement and think vs feel.
Think Feel
High involvement Think Learn Feel Emotionally attracted
Feel Decide Think Collects information
Do Buy Do Buy
Cars, furniture, loans, appliances Jewellery, perfume, fashion
Do Buy Do Buy
Think Learn (dis)advantages Feel Experience affective response
Feel Form attitude Think Gather knowledge
Low involvement Detergents, food, toilet paper Sweets, soft drinks, ice cream
The Rossiter-Percy grid also includes four different situations, based on high vs low involvement and fulfilling a transformational
(positive) vs informational (reduce negative) buying motive.
Both grids contain characteristics of consumers in a buying decisions and not product categories, so it can differ per consumer and
be used as segmentation and positioning tool. Also, these models recognize the important of brand awareness. Companies strive
to reach top-of-mind awareness (TOMA), which increases the likelihood to be purchased. Research found significant relations
between ad characteristics and recall, and ad characteristics and attitudes and purchase intentions, but not between recall and
attitudes. Additionally, these models don’t allow interaction between stages, which is unlikely.
Attitude formation and change
An attitude is a person’s overall evaluation of an object, a product, a person, an organisation, etc., which can measure how much a
person (dis)likes a brand. Brand attitudes are relatively stable, but can change over time. An attitude can be assumed to consist of
three components:
1. The cognitive component reflects knowledge, beliefs and evaluations of the object
2. The affective component represents the feelings associated with the object
3. The behavioural component refers to action readiness (behavioural intentions) with
respect to the object
Consumers follow different process, so a lot of communication models give an adequate
explanation for particular situations only. These models can be classified along two dimensions:
• Cognitive, affective or behavioural formed attitudes, which can be compared to the think-feel
dimension of the FCB grid
• Level of elaboration of message (or central-
route versus peripheral-route processing),
which can be compared to the involvement
dimension of the FCB grid.
We can extend this to motivation, ability and
opportunity (MAO).
• Motivation is influenced by consumer
needs and goals and can be categorized
into:
o Functional needs reflect solving
consumer problems (information
motivation in Rossiter-Percy grid)
o Symbolic needs reflect how we see
ourselves and how we would like to be
perceived by others
o Hedonic needs reflect consumers’
desires for sensory pleasure
Motivation can also be classified as
approach or promotions goals (positive
outcomes), and avoidance or prevention
, goals (avoid negative outcomes). So, in order to be persuasive, marketing communications should tap into consumers’
motivational concepts and marketers need to understand what goals consumers are trying to accomplish by buying the
product. But, one may be motivated, but may be unable to do it.
• Ability refers to the resources needed to achieve a particular goal.
• Opportunity deals with the extent to which the situation enables a person to obtain the goal set.
The MAO factors are presented in the Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM). If all three are high, consumers are expected to
engage in central-route processing (elaborate information, evaluate arguments), which will influence positive, negative or neutral
attitudes. These attitudes are good predictors and fairly resistant to persuasion. If one or more of the AMO factors is/are low,
consumers use simple, peripheral cues to evaluate information – the peripheral-route processing. These attitudes can easily be
changed. Both rational arguments and affects may give rise to peripheral and central processing, which depends on consumers’
goals and not MAO factors. E.g. consumers who focus on ideals consider affective information but when consumers’ oughts, they
focus on cognitive information. We divide six types of marketing communications, based on low vs high elaboration likelihood and
cognitive, affective or behavioural attitude component.
High elaboration likelihood, cognitive attitude formation
1. Multiple attribute models
Examples are the Expectancy-Value model or Fishbein
model. Brand attitudes is made up from relevant product
attributes, the extent to which one believes the brand
possesses these attributes, and the evaluation of these
attributes. In short: brand attitude = weighted sum of brand
beliefs x attribute evaluations.
The Theory of Reasoned Action (TORA) is an extension
and includes the subjective norm, which comprises the
belief one holds regarding what different reference groups consider as socially desirable behaviour, weighted by the consumer’s
need or willingness to behave according to the norms of the particular reference group (social sensitivity).
This can be extended to the Theory of Planned
Behaviour (TPB), which includes perceived
behavioural control (PBC): the perceived ease or
difficulty of performing the behaviour and it is
assumed to reflect past experience as well as
anticipated impediments and obstacles.
Marketing communicators can try to change attributes by changing brand
beliefs, by changing attribute evaluations or by adding attributes. They can
also try to change the opinion of others, raise or lowering social sensitivity for
specific significant others, or influence perceived behavioural control
2. Self-generated persuasion
The consumer is not persuaded by strong brand arguments, but by his or her own thoughts arguments or imagined consequences.
The consumer combines the information in the message with previous experience and knowledge, and tries to image him- or
herself consuming the product and the consequences thereof.
Low elaboration likelihood, cognitive attitude formation
3. Heuristic evaluation
If one of the MAO factors is low, consumers will make inferences based on the peripheral cues in the ad. It is also called satisficing
choice process, because consumers settle for a satisfactory or acceptable brand choice. Examples are the attractiveness,
expertise, and status of the source, the number of sources, the number of arguments, the reputation and layout of the message, or
the price, design or country of origin of the product. Another example is the use of celebrities.
High elaboration likelihood, affective attitude formation
4. Affect-as-information
The affect-as-information model posits that consumers may use feelings as a source of information to form an overall evaluation of
a product or brand, not by means of a simple association, but through a controlled inferential process or deliberate manner. Often
‘how-do-I-feel-about-it’ is used, e.g. by imagining the product. But, people don’t inspect their mood states at that moment, but their
