Cognitive neuropsychology
Samenvatting a.d.h.v. de hoorcolleges en andere bronnen
Inhoud
Lecture 1 – Introduction & history.......................................................................................................... 2
Lecture 2 – Animal research & ethics ................................................................................................... 11
Lecture 3 – MRI ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Lecture 4 – fMRI basics ......................................................................................................................... 25
Lecture 5 – fMRI advanced ................................................................................................................... 30
Lecture 6 – fNIRS, PET, MRS .................................................................................................................. 37
Lecture 7 – Clinical groups .................................................................................................................... 43
Lecture 8 – Imaging techniques in neurosurgery ................................................................................. 49
Lecture 9 – Imaging genetics ................................................................................................................ 51
Lecture 10 – Combining methods ......................................................................................................... 56
,Lecture 1 – Introduction & history
Definition cognitive neuropsychology:
The study of the relation between structure and function of the brain and specific cognitive
functions (e.g. language, memory, attention, …)
- by investigating these cognitive processes in normal healthy people
- by investigating the breakdown of these processes in brain-damaged individuals (as a result
of acquired brain damage or as a result of a developmental disorder)
History:
Neolithic times / Ancient Egyptians (~7000 B.C.)
>Heart is seat of soul and memory (not the head)
>Evidence of trephination = surgery in which a hole is drilled into the skull to
expose the brain. To cure epileptic seizures, migraines and mental disorders
or to prevent blood clots forming. They know this was performed while alive
because there were signs of healing.
Classical Greece and Rome
Hippocrates (~ 400 B.C.):
>brain = organ of intellect, controls senses & movement lesions produce contralateral effect
Aristotle (~ 350 B.C.):
>heart = center of intellect
>brain = radiator to cool body
Galen (~ 200 A.C.):
>physician of gladiators
>tried to deduce function from structure of cerebrum (soft => sensations), cerebellum (hard
=> muscles) and ventricles (hollow => communication) nerves filled with vital fluid (=
humors)
>based mainly on animal dissection because in this time it was not allowed to dissect
humans.
Renaissance
>Allowed to dissect humans.
Vesalius:
>first comprehensive anatomic text De Humani Corporis Fabrica
Libri Septem based on dissection of the human body
Descartes:
>dualism: mind & body ontologically separate but interacting pineal
gland as site of mind/body interaction
Thomas Willis:
>linked specific brain damage to specific behavioral deficits very
accurate brain representations
Understanding at the end of the 18th century
>Injury to the brain can disrupt sensations, movements and thought and can cause death.
>The brain communicates with the body via the nerves.
>The brain has different identifiable parts, which probably perform different functions.
>The brain operates like a machine and follows the laws of nature.
2
,Key insights gained during 19th century
1. Nerves as wires
Galvani: electrical stimulation of nerve causes muscle to contract electrical nature of nerve
action
Bell & Magendie: nerve fibers carry sensory or motor
information information flow in a nerve fiber is
unidirectional
>Bell: if you cut ventral root, you will create motor
problems
>Magendie: if you cut dorsal root, you will create sensory
problems
2. Localization of specific functions to different parts of the brain
Gall (1810)
>pioneer in ascribing cerebral functions to various areas of the brain
Phrenology: “science” of correlating head structure with personality traits
Broca (1861)
>first model of the neuropsychology of language first
evidence that a specific complex mental function (language) is localized
in a particular part of cortex.
3. Evolution of the nervous system
Darwin (1859):
>On the origin of species
>natural selection: traits advantageous for survival more likely to be passed on behavior =
heritable trait human & animal nervous systems share common wiring and underlying
mechanisms promoted use of animal models.
4. Neuron = basic functional brain unit
Golgi:
>staining method to visualize individual nerve cells neurons are
interconnected by continuous neural material
>He believed there was no space between neurons (continuous
space).
Cajal:
>produced first detailed drawings of different types of neurons neurons
unit
>He found that there was a synaptic space between neurons.
>Shared the Nobel prize in 1906 despite their dislike for eachother.
3
, Case studies
Phineas Gage (1823-1860):
>Iron bar passed through left side of his skull,
damaging orbitofrontal regions
>He remained conscious and quite alert
>But long-term consequences: impaired attention and
concentration abilities drastic change in personality:
rude and aimless.
>Inhibition was gone: aggressive and aimless.
Henry Gustave Molaison / HM (1926-
2008):
>severe epilepsy bilateral
hippocampectomy (but also amygdala &
surrounding cortex)
>severe anterograde amnesia
>little or no retrograde amnesia
>little or no problems with implicit memory
>Conclusion: hippocampus contains mechanism to “store” new, explicit memories.
Instruments
Human circulation balance
Angelo Mosso (1882)
>first neuroscientific method
>non-invasively measure blood redistribution during
emotional and intellectual activity
>Underlying idea: The brain needs more blood when it
works harder => emotional responses and mental effort will tip the balance.
>He was convinced his method was so sensitive that he could distinguish mental effort in
reading a philosophical book or a newspaper.
>In a replication study they found that it probably is.
Pneumoencephalography
>Walter Dandy (1918)
>drainage of cerebrospinal fluid surrounding
the brain and replacing it with oxygen lead to
an enhanced structural resolution of the brain
with an x-ray (greater contrast between brain
and air) >Invasive, painful and risky procedure
>Very important way of localizing brain lesions
Cerebral Angiography
>Egas Moniz (1927)
visualization of blood
vessels within and
surrounding the brain
contrast agent introduced
within a large artery and
dispersed throughout the brain great precision.
4
Samenvatting a.d.h.v. de hoorcolleges en andere bronnen
Inhoud
Lecture 1 – Introduction & history.......................................................................................................... 2
Lecture 2 – Animal research & ethics ................................................................................................... 11
Lecture 3 – MRI ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Lecture 4 – fMRI basics ......................................................................................................................... 25
Lecture 5 – fMRI advanced ................................................................................................................... 30
Lecture 6 – fNIRS, PET, MRS .................................................................................................................. 37
Lecture 7 – Clinical groups .................................................................................................................... 43
Lecture 8 – Imaging techniques in neurosurgery ................................................................................. 49
Lecture 9 – Imaging genetics ................................................................................................................ 51
Lecture 10 – Combining methods ......................................................................................................... 56
,Lecture 1 – Introduction & history
Definition cognitive neuropsychology:
The study of the relation between structure and function of the brain and specific cognitive
functions (e.g. language, memory, attention, …)
- by investigating these cognitive processes in normal healthy people
- by investigating the breakdown of these processes in brain-damaged individuals (as a result
of acquired brain damage or as a result of a developmental disorder)
History:
Neolithic times / Ancient Egyptians (~7000 B.C.)
>Heart is seat of soul and memory (not the head)
>Evidence of trephination = surgery in which a hole is drilled into the skull to
expose the brain. To cure epileptic seizures, migraines and mental disorders
or to prevent blood clots forming. They know this was performed while alive
because there were signs of healing.
Classical Greece and Rome
Hippocrates (~ 400 B.C.):
>brain = organ of intellect, controls senses & movement lesions produce contralateral effect
Aristotle (~ 350 B.C.):
>heart = center of intellect
>brain = radiator to cool body
Galen (~ 200 A.C.):
>physician of gladiators
>tried to deduce function from structure of cerebrum (soft => sensations), cerebellum (hard
=> muscles) and ventricles (hollow => communication) nerves filled with vital fluid (=
humors)
>based mainly on animal dissection because in this time it was not allowed to dissect
humans.
Renaissance
>Allowed to dissect humans.
Vesalius:
>first comprehensive anatomic text De Humani Corporis Fabrica
Libri Septem based on dissection of the human body
Descartes:
>dualism: mind & body ontologically separate but interacting pineal
gland as site of mind/body interaction
Thomas Willis:
>linked specific brain damage to specific behavioral deficits very
accurate brain representations
Understanding at the end of the 18th century
>Injury to the brain can disrupt sensations, movements and thought and can cause death.
>The brain communicates with the body via the nerves.
>The brain has different identifiable parts, which probably perform different functions.
>The brain operates like a machine and follows the laws of nature.
2
,Key insights gained during 19th century
1. Nerves as wires
Galvani: electrical stimulation of nerve causes muscle to contract electrical nature of nerve
action
Bell & Magendie: nerve fibers carry sensory or motor
information information flow in a nerve fiber is
unidirectional
>Bell: if you cut ventral root, you will create motor
problems
>Magendie: if you cut dorsal root, you will create sensory
problems
2. Localization of specific functions to different parts of the brain
Gall (1810)
>pioneer in ascribing cerebral functions to various areas of the brain
Phrenology: “science” of correlating head structure with personality traits
Broca (1861)
>first model of the neuropsychology of language first
evidence that a specific complex mental function (language) is localized
in a particular part of cortex.
3. Evolution of the nervous system
Darwin (1859):
>On the origin of species
>natural selection: traits advantageous for survival more likely to be passed on behavior =
heritable trait human & animal nervous systems share common wiring and underlying
mechanisms promoted use of animal models.
4. Neuron = basic functional brain unit
Golgi:
>staining method to visualize individual nerve cells neurons are
interconnected by continuous neural material
>He believed there was no space between neurons (continuous
space).
Cajal:
>produced first detailed drawings of different types of neurons neurons
unit
>He found that there was a synaptic space between neurons.
>Shared the Nobel prize in 1906 despite their dislike for eachother.
3
, Case studies
Phineas Gage (1823-1860):
>Iron bar passed through left side of his skull,
damaging orbitofrontal regions
>He remained conscious and quite alert
>But long-term consequences: impaired attention and
concentration abilities drastic change in personality:
rude and aimless.
>Inhibition was gone: aggressive and aimless.
Henry Gustave Molaison / HM (1926-
2008):
>severe epilepsy bilateral
hippocampectomy (but also amygdala &
surrounding cortex)
>severe anterograde amnesia
>little or no retrograde amnesia
>little or no problems with implicit memory
>Conclusion: hippocampus contains mechanism to “store” new, explicit memories.
Instruments
Human circulation balance
Angelo Mosso (1882)
>first neuroscientific method
>non-invasively measure blood redistribution during
emotional and intellectual activity
>Underlying idea: The brain needs more blood when it
works harder => emotional responses and mental effort will tip the balance.
>He was convinced his method was so sensitive that he could distinguish mental effort in
reading a philosophical book or a newspaper.
>In a replication study they found that it probably is.
Pneumoencephalography
>Walter Dandy (1918)
>drainage of cerebrospinal fluid surrounding
the brain and replacing it with oxygen lead to
an enhanced structural resolution of the brain
with an x-ray (greater contrast between brain
and air) >Invasive, painful and risky procedure
>Very important way of localizing brain lesions
Cerebral Angiography
>Egas Moniz (1927)
visualization of blood
vessels within and
surrounding the brain
contrast agent introduced
within a large artery and
dispersed throughout the brain great precision.
4
