Lecture 1: introduction: clashing views on science
The problem with facts today
Does corona spread through 5G masts?
YES = MYTH
NO = FACT
Facts are up for discussion these days
Why is that a problem?
Why is it important to know the facts? (Have knowledge)
- To make choices
- To take decisions
- To make policy
- In all: to distinguish between true and false
Where do we usually look for facts? (For knowledge)
- The “crowning achievement of the human mind” (opening sentence of the book, p.
15)
- Science: natural and social Science
Two basic philosophical positions about science
Scientism Scepticism
Science is vastly superior to all other Science does not give certainty, it is equal
attempts at securing knowledge: its laws to other forms of knowledge, science is a
provide certainty page 15 faith page 16-17
Ongoing debate, keeps coming back in the history of philosophy of science (and in the
book)
It’s a spectrum (spectrum is used to classify something in terms of its position on a scale
between two extreme points)
We are going to think and talk about science between scientism and scepticism
Scientism
Our mind is a perfect mirror of reality
Age of science is the age of certainty
Key words: Facts, the truth, rationality
Also associated with
Modernism = modern thinking: rational-secular (= without religion), think for yourself, use
reason only; modernity
Knowledge and truth about nature and humans are only found by and in science
Main ideas
The scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and the truth; science is about
everything
Scepticism
Our mind is a crooked mirror
Critical philosophical thinking about science, against methodological rules
,Key words: Pluralistic conception of rationalityand knowledge, facts are social constructions
Also associated with:
Post modernism = post (after) modernism: also secular thinking but different: individual and
emotional expression are key
Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’
Relativism/nihilism
Main idea
There is more than one truth, truth is experience, uncertainty, knowledge = oppressive
power, science is an ideology, it should be ‘Anything goes’
In olden days, a glimpse of stocking Was looked on as something shocking Now
heaven knows, anything goes. Cole Porter
Scientism versus scepticism in philosophy
Debate between land philosopher of science Lakatos: Book: For and against method
Like a family feud among philosophers
Philosophical scepticism is critical thinking about science within the boundaries of
philosophy
Scepticism has lead to radical scepticism (relativism and cynicism) in society
A radical interpretation of philosophical scepticism has become like a raging fire in society:
relativism = everything is relative; science is just an opinion and cynicism = there is no truth
Backdrop of the issue/societal debate around e.g.:
‘alternative facts’, ‘fact free politics’, fake news’, ‘post-truth’ era, political correctness,
freedom of speech, identity politics and conformism
In communication science terms: misinformation and disinformation
Exploring humans
Humans are exploring beings: Curiosity defines human consciousness
Observations provide us with evidence for explanations
Naive inquiry Scientific inquiry
Non formalized, non systematic and non ‘Highly formalized, systematic and
controlled form of collecting and controlled inquiry’ ‘observations and
summarizing information into naive reasoning are error prone’ (Watt & van den
theories (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002. p. Berg, 2002, p. 3)
3) By using the scientific method
Naive inquiry
Also known as:
-Common sense: What we do in daily life
-Premodern thinking: religious thinking, belief in a given truth (e.g. by a god)
-Non-sophisticated ways of knowing reality (fixing belief)
,Methods of knowing
-Tenacity: what is commonly known is true
-Authority: high regarded person speaks the truth
-Reasonable man: reason and logical consistency is key (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 6-7)
Associations
Biases, convictions, popular scepticism, some forms of postmodernism, myth
‘Slogan’
‘I have this theory’: The use of the word theory when a hypothesis, idea or speculation is
meant
Scientific inquiry
‘Science shifts the locus of truth from single individuals to groups, by establishing a set of
mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth.’ (Watt & Van den Berg, p. 7)
Also known as:
-The scientific method
-Modern thinking
-Analytical-empirical approach; experimental research
Associations
-Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
-Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
-Methodological rigour, modelling
‘Slogan’:
Truth is an objective reality ‘out there’ and our ideas do not alter that reality
We develop theories that are true
Key is theory!
“A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.” (Kerlinger, 1986, in Watt & Van den
Berg, 2002, p. 2; explanation p.2-3)
Develop theories by using the scientific method: testing theories, control of alternative
explanations, attention for the nature of relationships, use observable evidence (Watt & Van
den Berg, 2002, p. 4-6)
Steps in the scientific method:
The use and selection of concepts (variables)
Linking concepts (variables) to propositions(hypotheses)
Testing theories with observable evidence
The definition of concepts (variables)
The publication of definitions and procedures
Control of alternative explanation
Unbiased selection of evidence
Reconciliation of theory and observation
(Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 8-9)
, Scientific inquiry
Laboratories and experiments are THEsymbols of scientific inquiry in natural and social
sciences
Scientific inquiry leads to knowledge
What is knowledge?
Knowledge is a justified true belief (book chapter1 pp.24-25)
What is a belief? How do we justify beliefs? What is true/truth?
Why is that important?
Philosophers (and some scientists) reflect on questions about facts and knowledge and
tried to answer the sceptics by providing science with firm and secure (philosophical and
methodological) foundations
Done for centuries already; since the ancient Greek philosopher Plato
Philosophy of science
Special branche of philosophy: analyses the methods of inquiry used in the sciences
Meta theory (= theory about theory)
Main questions:
What are the sources of knowledge?
How can we justify knowledge?
What is science and how does it differ from non-science?
How do we handle knowledge and science today?
What is rational, what is truth and what is real?
Why are we studying this? Why relevant today?
Interesting!
Contribute to the development of your academic and critical attitude in general
Vocabulary and conceptsto think and talk about science, its characteristicsand its positioning
society
Learn to critically reflecton science (and society) and the assumptionsthat underly science
Learn argumentsto counter non-scientificthinking
Contribute to the development of your scientific thinking and working with the
scientific method
Help you to understand the background of:
- the methodologies in communication science (and the methodologicalcourses)
- societal issues
Lecture 2: Philosophy of Knowledge (1): Out of the Cave
How can humans get true knowledge?
Difficult to know what we know and how we can justify what we know
Knowledge is a justified true belief
Or: ‘true judgement with an account’
true = corresponds to facts (correspondence theory of truth),
justified = with a good reason
How can humans get true knowledge?
The problem with facts today
Does corona spread through 5G masts?
YES = MYTH
NO = FACT
Facts are up for discussion these days
Why is that a problem?
Why is it important to know the facts? (Have knowledge)
- To make choices
- To take decisions
- To make policy
- In all: to distinguish between true and false
Where do we usually look for facts? (For knowledge)
- The “crowning achievement of the human mind” (opening sentence of the book, p.
15)
- Science: natural and social Science
Two basic philosophical positions about science
Scientism Scepticism
Science is vastly superior to all other Science does not give certainty, it is equal
attempts at securing knowledge: its laws to other forms of knowledge, science is a
provide certainty page 15 faith page 16-17
Ongoing debate, keeps coming back in the history of philosophy of science (and in the
book)
It’s a spectrum (spectrum is used to classify something in terms of its position on a scale
between two extreme points)
We are going to think and talk about science between scientism and scepticism
Scientism
Our mind is a perfect mirror of reality
Age of science is the age of certainty
Key words: Facts, the truth, rationality
Also associated with
Modernism = modern thinking: rational-secular (= without religion), think for yourself, use
reason only; modernity
Knowledge and truth about nature and humans are only found by and in science
Main ideas
The scientific method is the only method to obtain facts and the truth; science is about
everything
Scepticism
Our mind is a crooked mirror
Critical philosophical thinking about science, against methodological rules
,Key words: Pluralistic conception of rationalityand knowledge, facts are social constructions
Also associated with:
Post modernism = post (after) modernism: also secular thinking but different: individual and
emotional expression are key
Knowledge and truth are social constructions that need ‘deconstruction’
Relativism/nihilism
Main idea
There is more than one truth, truth is experience, uncertainty, knowledge = oppressive
power, science is an ideology, it should be ‘Anything goes’
In olden days, a glimpse of stocking Was looked on as something shocking Now
heaven knows, anything goes. Cole Porter
Scientism versus scepticism in philosophy
Debate between land philosopher of science Lakatos: Book: For and against method
Like a family feud among philosophers
Philosophical scepticism is critical thinking about science within the boundaries of
philosophy
Scepticism has lead to radical scepticism (relativism and cynicism) in society
A radical interpretation of philosophical scepticism has become like a raging fire in society:
relativism = everything is relative; science is just an opinion and cynicism = there is no truth
Backdrop of the issue/societal debate around e.g.:
‘alternative facts’, ‘fact free politics’, fake news’, ‘post-truth’ era, political correctness,
freedom of speech, identity politics and conformism
In communication science terms: misinformation and disinformation
Exploring humans
Humans are exploring beings: Curiosity defines human consciousness
Observations provide us with evidence for explanations
Naive inquiry Scientific inquiry
Non formalized, non systematic and non ‘Highly formalized, systematic and
controlled form of collecting and controlled inquiry’ ‘observations and
summarizing information into naive reasoning are error prone’ (Watt & van den
theories (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002. p. Berg, 2002, p. 3)
3) By using the scientific method
Naive inquiry
Also known as:
-Common sense: What we do in daily life
-Premodern thinking: religious thinking, belief in a given truth (e.g. by a god)
-Non-sophisticated ways of knowing reality (fixing belief)
,Methods of knowing
-Tenacity: what is commonly known is true
-Authority: high regarded person speaks the truth
-Reasonable man: reason and logical consistency is key (Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 6-7)
Associations
Biases, convictions, popular scepticism, some forms of postmodernism, myth
‘Slogan’
‘I have this theory’: The use of the word theory when a hypothesis, idea or speculation is
meant
Scientific inquiry
‘Science shifts the locus of truth from single individuals to groups, by establishing a set of
mutually agreed upon rules for establishing truth.’ (Watt & Van den Berg, p. 7)
Also known as:
-The scientific method
-Modern thinking
-Analytical-empirical approach; experimental research
Associations
-Critical shift in perspective compared to naive inquiry
-Internal beliefs should be supported by external evidence
-Methodological rigour, modelling
‘Slogan’:
Truth is an objective reality ‘out there’ and our ideas do not alter that reality
We develop theories that are true
Key is theory!
“A theory is a set of interrelated constructs (concepts), definitions, and propositions that
present a systematic view of phenomena by specifying relations among variables, with the
purpose of explaining and predicting the phenomena.” (Kerlinger, 1986, in Watt & Van den
Berg, 2002, p. 2; explanation p.2-3)
Develop theories by using the scientific method: testing theories, control of alternative
explanations, attention for the nature of relationships, use observable evidence (Watt & Van
den Berg, 2002, p. 4-6)
Steps in the scientific method:
The use and selection of concepts (variables)
Linking concepts (variables) to propositions(hypotheses)
Testing theories with observable evidence
The definition of concepts (variables)
The publication of definitions and procedures
Control of alternative explanation
Unbiased selection of evidence
Reconciliation of theory and observation
(Watt & Van den Berg, 2002, p. 8-9)
, Scientific inquiry
Laboratories and experiments are THEsymbols of scientific inquiry in natural and social
sciences
Scientific inquiry leads to knowledge
What is knowledge?
Knowledge is a justified true belief (book chapter1 pp.24-25)
What is a belief? How do we justify beliefs? What is true/truth?
Why is that important?
Philosophers (and some scientists) reflect on questions about facts and knowledge and
tried to answer the sceptics by providing science with firm and secure (philosophical and
methodological) foundations
Done for centuries already; since the ancient Greek philosopher Plato
Philosophy of science
Special branche of philosophy: analyses the methods of inquiry used in the sciences
Meta theory (= theory about theory)
Main questions:
What are the sources of knowledge?
How can we justify knowledge?
What is science and how does it differ from non-science?
How do we handle knowledge and science today?
What is rational, what is truth and what is real?
Why are we studying this? Why relevant today?
Interesting!
Contribute to the development of your academic and critical attitude in general
Vocabulary and conceptsto think and talk about science, its characteristicsand its positioning
society
Learn to critically reflecton science (and society) and the assumptionsthat underly science
Learn argumentsto counter non-scientificthinking
Contribute to the development of your scientific thinking and working with the
scientific method
Help you to understand the background of:
- the methodologies in communication science (and the methodologicalcourses)
- societal issues
Lecture 2: Philosophy of Knowledge (1): Out of the Cave
How can humans get true knowledge?
Difficult to know what we know and how we can justify what we know
Knowledge is a justified true belief
Or: ‘true judgement with an account’
true = corresponds to facts (correspondence theory of truth),
justified = with a good reason
How can humans get true knowledge?
