2.3 Problem 5
Science- a process by which objectively defensible knowledge is produced and
handled by humans
Often given wrong definition
Knowing- being aware of something that is true while also being directly aware of
the fact that it is true
Must have a basis for being sure that it is true
Types of info we know, has different categories:
1. Analytic truth (true by definition)- refers to something that has an
already agreed meaning, so can’t be disputed without perverting language
that is used to express it
o Opposite of synthetic truth- information that requires evidentiary
confirmation
2. Axiom- knowing conclusions without having to consult an external source or
to look for evidence to corroborate your knowledge
Truism- claims that are true without question (inc. analytic truth and axiom
Complications when feel we know something with subjective certainty without
knowing it as true by definition eg. Madrid as the capital of Spain
o Close to being true by definition but not actually true by definition
Just feels true
If we treat something as true because it feels true, much
issue as it might be false
eg. feel that poverty causes criminality, but
1. Reverse causality (criminality could cause
poverty)
2. Confounding variable
3. Dependence on synergies- Could be more
complicated than just x causes y
4. Coincidence (not linked at all)
Correlation doesn’t imply causation, causation does imply correlation
Historically, knowledge was generated often on subjective judgement
o Religions often convinced entire populations that their scriptures were
true knowledge
Semantics, intuition, and authority cannot yield actual knowledge
o Actual knowledge-generation requires systematic investigation and
reasoning, avoiding pitfalls of the systems (this is science)
Science as a Formal Process of Knowledge Generation
Science uses data to resolve uncertainties and produce objectively defensible
knowledge
o Knowledge is constructed using premises (established assertions) and
observations (newly identified info)
to create argument
in support of a hypothesis
if confirmed, generates the conclusion
Ideal = eliminate subjective judgment in knowledge-generation
Observation must be carried out in very specific manner:
o 3 main processes of reasoning:
1. Deduction- where areas of increasingly reduced generality are
combined to produce an irrefutably true conclusion
Eg. Dairy products= protein, so milk= protein
Always true
2 pieces of knowledge related to each other, but less
generality
, 2. Induction- specific info, derived from larger group, are considered
together, pattern identified, conclusion about larger group drawn
on basis that pattern will continue
Contain info about known subsets of cases, aim to draw
conclusions about unknown full set of cases that subsets are
drawn from
Moving from specific to broad
Not always true, but likely to be
3. Abduction- considering a given outcome along with possible
preconditions, then combing info in a way that concludes
Eg. Brother buys piece of rope, you know sailors use rope, so
assume he’s started sailing
Observed outcomes + suspected causes
Never necessarily true as can always be alternative
explanations for the outcome
Can suggest new ways to explain things (generate theories)
o Scientific research= new evidence + abductions=
inductions
Modern Science
Aristotelian worldview:
Universe is finite space with Earth at the centre
Stars are embedded in spherical shell, marking universe’s periphery
Convinced based on empirical grounds
Naïve
o Not actually very naïve as no telescopes
Egocentrical
Biased in Abrahamic religious teachings
Newtonian worldview:
Earth is one of many similar planets orbiting the sun
Sun is many stars extending across the universe, in endless space
Much due to invention of telescope
Science today
Characterised by:
Francis Bacon
o Argued that reasoning is limited in its capacity to generate new
knowledge as it’s subject to confirmation bias
o “Father of experimental science” experiment- method of research
involving the systematic comparison of different arrangements or
procedures in order to test a hypothesis
More data you gather, and more comparable data is, the better
In experiment, researcher deliberately manipulates relevant features
No singular scientific method: often characterised as a series of stages:
1. Establish research topics, with appropriately phrased question
2. Conduct review of previous scientific research on the matter
3. Formulate relevant hypothesis
4. Design research procedure to test hypothesis
5. Conduct study according to procedure
6. Analyse results to see if hypothesis is supported or not
7. Report findings
If hypothesis not supported, back to step 3 with different
hypothesis
If hypothesis supported, back to step 2 or re-run
experiment to confirm results
Shared assumptions:
Science- a process by which objectively defensible knowledge is produced and
handled by humans
Often given wrong definition
Knowing- being aware of something that is true while also being directly aware of
the fact that it is true
Must have a basis for being sure that it is true
Types of info we know, has different categories:
1. Analytic truth (true by definition)- refers to something that has an
already agreed meaning, so can’t be disputed without perverting language
that is used to express it
o Opposite of synthetic truth- information that requires evidentiary
confirmation
2. Axiom- knowing conclusions without having to consult an external source or
to look for evidence to corroborate your knowledge
Truism- claims that are true without question (inc. analytic truth and axiom
Complications when feel we know something with subjective certainty without
knowing it as true by definition eg. Madrid as the capital of Spain
o Close to being true by definition but not actually true by definition
Just feels true
If we treat something as true because it feels true, much
issue as it might be false
eg. feel that poverty causes criminality, but
1. Reverse causality (criminality could cause
poverty)
2. Confounding variable
3. Dependence on synergies- Could be more
complicated than just x causes y
4. Coincidence (not linked at all)
Correlation doesn’t imply causation, causation does imply correlation
Historically, knowledge was generated often on subjective judgement
o Religions often convinced entire populations that their scriptures were
true knowledge
Semantics, intuition, and authority cannot yield actual knowledge
o Actual knowledge-generation requires systematic investigation and
reasoning, avoiding pitfalls of the systems (this is science)
Science as a Formal Process of Knowledge Generation
Science uses data to resolve uncertainties and produce objectively defensible
knowledge
o Knowledge is constructed using premises (established assertions) and
observations (newly identified info)
to create argument
in support of a hypothesis
if confirmed, generates the conclusion
Ideal = eliminate subjective judgment in knowledge-generation
Observation must be carried out in very specific manner:
o 3 main processes of reasoning:
1. Deduction- where areas of increasingly reduced generality are
combined to produce an irrefutably true conclusion
Eg. Dairy products= protein, so milk= protein
Always true
2 pieces of knowledge related to each other, but less
generality
, 2. Induction- specific info, derived from larger group, are considered
together, pattern identified, conclusion about larger group drawn
on basis that pattern will continue
Contain info about known subsets of cases, aim to draw
conclusions about unknown full set of cases that subsets are
drawn from
Moving from specific to broad
Not always true, but likely to be
3. Abduction- considering a given outcome along with possible
preconditions, then combing info in a way that concludes
Eg. Brother buys piece of rope, you know sailors use rope, so
assume he’s started sailing
Observed outcomes + suspected causes
Never necessarily true as can always be alternative
explanations for the outcome
Can suggest new ways to explain things (generate theories)
o Scientific research= new evidence + abductions=
inductions
Modern Science
Aristotelian worldview:
Universe is finite space with Earth at the centre
Stars are embedded in spherical shell, marking universe’s periphery
Convinced based on empirical grounds
Naïve
o Not actually very naïve as no telescopes
Egocentrical
Biased in Abrahamic religious teachings
Newtonian worldview:
Earth is one of many similar planets orbiting the sun
Sun is many stars extending across the universe, in endless space
Much due to invention of telescope
Science today
Characterised by:
Francis Bacon
o Argued that reasoning is limited in its capacity to generate new
knowledge as it’s subject to confirmation bias
o “Father of experimental science” experiment- method of research
involving the systematic comparison of different arrangements or
procedures in order to test a hypothesis
More data you gather, and more comparable data is, the better
In experiment, researcher deliberately manipulates relevant features
No singular scientific method: often characterised as a series of stages:
1. Establish research topics, with appropriately phrased question
2. Conduct review of previous scientific research on the matter
3. Formulate relevant hypothesis
4. Design research procedure to test hypothesis
5. Conduct study according to procedure
6. Analyse results to see if hypothesis is supported or not
7. Report findings
If hypothesis not supported, back to step 3 with different
hypothesis
If hypothesis supported, back to step 2 or re-run
experiment to confirm results
Shared assumptions:
