1.7C People at Work Summary
Map:
- JS = job satisfaction
- JP = job performance
- TP = Task performance
- Orgcom = organizational commitment
Problem 1: Motivation
Learning goals:
1) What drives people to work?
a) Situational factors, personality?
b) Theories?
2) How do personal/basic needs influence work?
3) How do expectancies influence our motivations to work?
a) Goal-setting
b) Self-efficacy
c) etc. (Canvas)
Specifically:
- Look at theories (the key words)
Literature: Landy & Conte
Meaning of motivation in the workplace
- Motivation = concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity,
persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior.
Metaphors (Weiner)
Person as machine
- Parts that interact, have a function, behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary
and performed without conscious awareness.
- Psychoanalytic theory (freud)
- drive theory proposed by animal learning theorists
- behaviorism
- some versions of field theory of Lewin
Person as scientist
- reflective, intentional, perfectly rational.
- = person sought knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their
environment (desire to know).
- All modern motivational theories
- Limited rationality = the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly
rational ways
Person as judge
- individual seeks info about extent to which the self and others are responsible for
positive and negative events.
Importance motivation
,ProMES (Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System): increasing the amount of
time and effort → increases task motivation for a person → high levels of personal
performance + increased productivity for organization
Motivation and Work-life balance
Work-life balance = investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in
part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa, particularly
to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other (workaholic).
Motivation and personality
● Study of Judge and Ilies (2002):
○ Result: conscientious and emotionally stable individuals: set more challenging
goals + were more likely to believe that hard work would lead to rewards +
were more confident in their ability to accomplish a task/job.
● Locus of control = the extent to which an individual views events as resulting from
his/her own actions (an internal LOC) or from outside causes (an external LOC).
○ Internal loc: believe they can control environments
○ External loc: believe that they can’t influence outcomes of environment
- Positive correlation between internal LOC (i.e. optimistic view of life) and work
motivation.
Motivational theories - Classic Approaches
1) Person-as-Machine Theories
Maslow’s Need Theory
● = when we are young, we are more concerned with our physical well-being → as we
become more secure in our physical world, we then begin to emphasize social needs
→ when our social foundation seems secure, we then concentrate on developing our
abilities and capacities to their fullest.
● 5 hierarchically different sets of needs:
1. Physiological needs = basic needs/drives; e.f. food, water, sleep
2. Security needs = need of individual to produce secure environment (no threats)
3. Love or social needs = interpersonal factors; desire to be accepted by others
4. Esteem needs = need to be respected for accomplishments/capabilities
5. Self-actualization needs = desire of individual to develop his capacities to the fullest
(few people ever satisfy this need; individual always seek to develop)
● Individual starts at fulfilling most basic set of unfulfilled need → when fulfilled →
expend energy attempting to fulfill next set of needs.
● Fits person-as-machine: behavior individual is unconscious + automatic.
Variations on Maslow’s Theory:
,Two-factor Theory (Herzberg)
● = there were really 2 basic needs (not 5), and were not hierarchically
arranged/independent of each other.
1. Hygiene needs = (Maslow’s physical and security needs)
- Lower level needs
- Meeting hygiene needs → eliminate dissatisfaction
- but not result in motivated behavior or state of positive satisfaction
2. Motivator needs = (Maslow’s social, esteem, and actualization needs)
- Higher level needs
- Meeting motivator needs → expenditure of effort + positive satisfaction.
Reinforcement theory (Behaviorism: Skinner)
● Behavior depends on 3 simple elements: stimulus + response + reward.
● If response in presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded → response is likely to
occur again in presence of that stimulus
● E.g.: monetary bonus as reward for work.
● Intermittent rewards produce higher levels of performance than continuous
rewards.
Criticism:
- Approach is impractical; jobs/tasks are hard to compartmentalize for exactly how
much reinforcement should be given.
- We can not observe complex cognitive processes (thinking, hypothesis testing, etc.)
in the workplace.
- Observing the behavior is time-consuming task for supervisor.
2) Person-as-Scientist Theories
Vroom’s VIE Theory
● Valence = the strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome
○ Repelling/attracting (chemistry)
● Instrumentality = the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment
of a certain outcome.
○ If I am able to perform as expected, am I likely to receive expected
outcomes/rewards?
○ E.g. a promotion; means higher salary, but also more work.
■ Person decides whether the balance of outcome is more
positive/negative.
, ● Expectancy = an individual’s belief that a particular behavior (e.g. effort) will lead to
higher performance.
● People have needs or desires.
● Person is “calculator”; estimates the probabilities associated with VIE.
- Manager applying Vroom’s theory would:
Criticism
- Individuals also consider things other than instrumentalities and expectancies in
making behavioral choices.
- Ignores many noncognitive elements in choice (personality, emotion).
Equity theory
● = individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. They
compare their inp + outc with comparison others (e.g. peers, co-workers) by
developing an input/outcome ratio.
○ If their own outcome/input ratio is identical to the out/inp ratio of their
comparison other → no tension + no subsequent action to relieve tension
○ E.g.: sales manager finds out that the same position at same company, but
another state, earns more → starts to call with boss.
● Inputs = training, effort, skills, abilities that employees bring to/invest in their work.
● Outcomes = compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits employees derive from
their work.
● Comparison other = co-worker/idealized other person to which the individual
compares himself or herself in determining perceived equity.
● Outcome/input ratio = ratio that results when employees compare their inputs and
outcomes to those of others to determine if they are being treated equitably.
- Ratio of outcome to input is… for “person” and “other”:
- The same → equity
- Higher/lower → inequity → state of tension
Modern Approaches to Work Motivation
1) Person-as-Intentional Approaches
Goal-setting theory
● = the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation (a goal as a
motivational force).
Map:
- JS = job satisfaction
- JP = job performance
- TP = Task performance
- Orgcom = organizational commitment
Problem 1: Motivation
Learning goals:
1) What drives people to work?
a) Situational factors, personality?
b) Theories?
2) How do personal/basic needs influence work?
3) How do expectancies influence our motivations to work?
a) Goal-setting
b) Self-efficacy
c) etc. (Canvas)
Specifically:
- Look at theories (the key words)
Literature: Landy & Conte
Meaning of motivation in the workplace
- Motivation = concerns the conditions responsible for variations in intensity,
persistence, quality, and direction of ongoing behavior.
Metaphors (Weiner)
Person as machine
- Parts that interact, have a function, behaviors/actions are reflexive and involuntary
and performed without conscious awareness.
- Psychoanalytic theory (freud)
- drive theory proposed by animal learning theorists
- behaviorism
- some versions of field theory of Lewin
Person as scientist
- reflective, intentional, perfectly rational.
- = person sought knowledge and understanding as a way of mastering their
environment (desire to know).
- All modern motivational theories
- Limited rationality = the inability of humans to reason and make decisions in perfectly
rational ways
Person as judge
- individual seeks info about extent to which the self and others are responsible for
positive and negative events.
Importance motivation
,ProMES (Productivity Measurement and Enhancement System): increasing the amount of
time and effort → increases task motivation for a person → high levels of personal
performance + increased productivity for organization
Motivation and Work-life balance
Work-life balance = investigates whether the satisfaction that one experiences at work is in
part affected by the satisfaction that one experiences in non-work and vice versa, particularly
to the extent that one environment has demands that conflict with the other (workaholic).
Motivation and personality
● Study of Judge and Ilies (2002):
○ Result: conscientious and emotionally stable individuals: set more challenging
goals + were more likely to believe that hard work would lead to rewards +
were more confident in their ability to accomplish a task/job.
● Locus of control = the extent to which an individual views events as resulting from
his/her own actions (an internal LOC) or from outside causes (an external LOC).
○ Internal loc: believe they can control environments
○ External loc: believe that they can’t influence outcomes of environment
- Positive correlation between internal LOC (i.e. optimistic view of life) and work
motivation.
Motivational theories - Classic Approaches
1) Person-as-Machine Theories
Maslow’s Need Theory
● = when we are young, we are more concerned with our physical well-being → as we
become more secure in our physical world, we then begin to emphasize social needs
→ when our social foundation seems secure, we then concentrate on developing our
abilities and capacities to their fullest.
● 5 hierarchically different sets of needs:
1. Physiological needs = basic needs/drives; e.f. food, water, sleep
2. Security needs = need of individual to produce secure environment (no threats)
3. Love or social needs = interpersonal factors; desire to be accepted by others
4. Esteem needs = need to be respected for accomplishments/capabilities
5. Self-actualization needs = desire of individual to develop his capacities to the fullest
(few people ever satisfy this need; individual always seek to develop)
● Individual starts at fulfilling most basic set of unfulfilled need → when fulfilled →
expend energy attempting to fulfill next set of needs.
● Fits person-as-machine: behavior individual is unconscious + automatic.
Variations on Maslow’s Theory:
,Two-factor Theory (Herzberg)
● = there were really 2 basic needs (not 5), and were not hierarchically
arranged/independent of each other.
1. Hygiene needs = (Maslow’s physical and security needs)
- Lower level needs
- Meeting hygiene needs → eliminate dissatisfaction
- but not result in motivated behavior or state of positive satisfaction
2. Motivator needs = (Maslow’s social, esteem, and actualization needs)
- Higher level needs
- Meeting motivator needs → expenditure of effort + positive satisfaction.
Reinforcement theory (Behaviorism: Skinner)
● Behavior depends on 3 simple elements: stimulus + response + reward.
● If response in presence of a particular stimulus is rewarded → response is likely to
occur again in presence of that stimulus
● E.g.: monetary bonus as reward for work.
● Intermittent rewards produce higher levels of performance than continuous
rewards.
Criticism:
- Approach is impractical; jobs/tasks are hard to compartmentalize for exactly how
much reinforcement should be given.
- We can not observe complex cognitive processes (thinking, hypothesis testing, etc.)
in the workplace.
- Observing the behavior is time-consuming task for supervisor.
2) Person-as-Scientist Theories
Vroom’s VIE Theory
● Valence = the strength of a person’s preference for a particular outcome
○ Repelling/attracting (chemistry)
● Instrumentality = the perceived relationship between performance and the attainment
of a certain outcome.
○ If I am able to perform as expected, am I likely to receive expected
outcomes/rewards?
○ E.g. a promotion; means higher salary, but also more work.
■ Person decides whether the balance of outcome is more
positive/negative.
, ● Expectancy = an individual’s belief that a particular behavior (e.g. effort) will lead to
higher performance.
● People have needs or desires.
● Person is “calculator”; estimates the probabilities associated with VIE.
- Manager applying Vroom’s theory would:
Criticism
- Individuals also consider things other than instrumentalities and expectancies in
making behavioral choices.
- Ignores many noncognitive elements in choice (personality, emotion).
Equity theory
● = individuals look at their world in terms of comparative inputs and outcomes. They
compare their inp + outc with comparison others (e.g. peers, co-workers) by
developing an input/outcome ratio.
○ If their own outcome/input ratio is identical to the out/inp ratio of their
comparison other → no tension + no subsequent action to relieve tension
○ E.g.: sales manager finds out that the same position at same company, but
another state, earns more → starts to call with boss.
● Inputs = training, effort, skills, abilities that employees bring to/invest in their work.
● Outcomes = compensation, satisfaction, and other benefits employees derive from
their work.
● Comparison other = co-worker/idealized other person to which the individual
compares himself or herself in determining perceived equity.
● Outcome/input ratio = ratio that results when employees compare their inputs and
outcomes to those of others to determine if they are being treated equitably.
- Ratio of outcome to input is… for “person” and “other”:
- The same → equity
- Higher/lower → inequity → state of tension
Modern Approaches to Work Motivation
1) Person-as-Intentional Approaches
Goal-setting theory
● = the general concept of a goal is adapted to work motivation (a goal as a
motivational force).
