Research methods
Types of research methods
1. Experiments - lab / field
2. Observation - covert / overt
3. Self report - questionnaire / interview
4. Correlation - graphs
5. Meta analysis - get info from lots of studies
The experimental method
Aims = what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a study - general statement of research intent (e.g. to
investigate the effect of TV on the work a student produces)
Debriefing = an interview after research to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to
restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study, can be used to get feedback about study
process (it is not an ethical issue, it is a means of dealing with ethical issues)
Ethical issues = concern questions of right and wrong, arise in research when there are conflicting sets of
values between the researcher and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a
research study
Experiment = research method where causal conclusions can be drawn as an independent variable has
been deliberately manipulated to observe view the causal effect on the dependant variable
Extraneous variables = don’t vary systematically with the IV so don’t act as an alternative IV but can affect
the DV, individual differences only found in 1 or a few people (e.g. headache or greater working memory
span) (make it harder to detect a significant effect)
Confounding variable = a factor affecting results which is found in all participants (e.g. time of day or
weather)
Hypothesis = a precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables,
operationalisation is an important part of making the statement testable - a prediction of what you think
will happen which is operationalised (e.g. students who do a memory task with the TV on produce work
which gets fewer marks)
Independent variable (IV) = an event which is directly manipulated by an experiment to test its effect on
another variable (the dependant variable) - e.g. having TV on or TV off
Dependant variable (DV) = what you are measuring (have to operationalise the DV - e.g. make sure all
participants to same work / test
,Informed consent = participants must be given comprehensive info about the nature and purpose of the
study and their role in it in order to give consent on whether they want to take part or not
Operationalise = ensuring that variables are in a form in which they can be easily tested (making
something measurable, e.g. turing aggression into hitting / swearing / kicking)
Standardised procedures = a set of procedures which are the same for all participants in order to be able
to repeat the study (includes standardised instructions - instructions given to participants to tell them how
to perform the set task) - if procedure not same for all then results may vary due to changes in procedure
rather than due to IV
● In an experiment there is an IV which is deliberately changed to see if it has any effect on the DV
- this allows us to draw causal conclusions (e.g. whether having the TV on or off changed the
results of test)
● Disadvantage of using median values in results - doesn't account for outliers as only middle
numbers
● Disadvantage of questionnaires in experiment - SDB + demand characteristics
● Strength of questionnaires in experiment - saves time as they do it on their own
External validity
Internal validity = controlled conditions (= high internal validity)
External validity = how appropriately the results from the research can be used to explain real life
behaviour, is the sample representative, can you generalise? (e.g. age, gender, location, time…)
Ecological validity = the setting where the research takes place (e.g. doing a test on a rugby pitch means
low ecological validity as we are not used to it, doing it in a classroom means high ecological validity)
Mundane realism = how much does task itself reflect the real world (e.g. IQ test would have low mundane
realism as we are not used to doing it but a 12 marker would have high mundane realism)
Demand characteristics = participant changes behaviour / words to what they think thought was required
of them (effect internal validity)
● How appropriately the results from the research can be used to explain real life behaviour (can
you generalise)
Types of external validity:
● Population validity (people sample is not representative) - e.g. location, age, gender, social group
● Historical validity (would the findings still be relevant now?)
● Ecological validity (setting - whether it represents where the behaviour would be occurring in the
real world, is the setting realistic, e.g. doing a test in a classroom vs outside)
● Mundane realism (whether the task reflects what they would be doing in the real world)
, Observations
Social Desirability Bias (SDB) = changing behaviour to look better
Observer bias = the observers may inaccurately assign meaning to a particular behaviour because of
their knowledge of the research (make assumption) - decreases internal validity
Demand characteristics = when you behave how you think you should for the purpose of the experiment
Controlled
● Keeping the situation consistent between participants as manipulation has occurred
● Will take place in an artificial setting
● Researcher has created this in purpose for the study
● Tight conditions, keep all variables the same apart from the IV
Advantage:
- Check for reliability - as easier to repeat
- High internal validity - can conclude more causality (cause and effect) with confidence
Disadvantage:
- Low external validity - due to situation being artificial (unlikely to reflect real world so low
ecological validity)
Naturalistic
● Observation takes place with no influence from researcher to keep the setting / behaviours as
realistic as possible
Advantage:
- Very realistic - high external validity
- More representative of actual behaviour
Disadvantage:
- No control - low internal validity (can’t trust conclusions on why things are happening)
Overt
● Participants are aware that there being observed
Advantage:
- Have consent from participants (ethics is higher)
Disadvantage:
- Know they’re being watched so adapt behaviour, DC & SDB - reduces internal validity
Convert
● Participants are unaware they are being observed
Advantage:
- Participants wont charge behaviour, more likely to act genuinely, less desired characteristics,
SDB - increases internal validity
Disadvantage:
- Don't have consent (ethical issues)
Types of research methods
1. Experiments - lab / field
2. Observation - covert / overt
3. Self report - questionnaire / interview
4. Correlation - graphs
5. Meta analysis - get info from lots of studies
The experimental method
Aims = what the researcher(s) intend to find out in a study - general statement of research intent (e.g. to
investigate the effect of TV on the work a student produces)
Debriefing = an interview after research to inform participants of the true nature of the study and to
restore them to the state they were in at the start of the study, can be used to get feedback about study
process (it is not an ethical issue, it is a means of dealing with ethical issues)
Ethical issues = concern questions of right and wrong, arise in research when there are conflicting sets of
values between the researcher and participants concerning the goals, procedures or outcomes of a
research study
Experiment = research method where causal conclusions can be drawn as an independent variable has
been deliberately manipulated to observe view the causal effect on the dependant variable
Extraneous variables = don’t vary systematically with the IV so don’t act as an alternative IV but can affect
the DV, individual differences only found in 1 or a few people (e.g. headache or greater working memory
span) (make it harder to detect a significant effect)
Confounding variable = a factor affecting results which is found in all participants (e.g. time of day or
weather)
Hypothesis = a precise and testable statement about the assumed relationship between variables,
operationalisation is an important part of making the statement testable - a prediction of what you think
will happen which is operationalised (e.g. students who do a memory task with the TV on produce work
which gets fewer marks)
Independent variable (IV) = an event which is directly manipulated by an experiment to test its effect on
another variable (the dependant variable) - e.g. having TV on or TV off
Dependant variable (DV) = what you are measuring (have to operationalise the DV - e.g. make sure all
participants to same work / test
,Informed consent = participants must be given comprehensive info about the nature and purpose of the
study and their role in it in order to give consent on whether they want to take part or not
Operationalise = ensuring that variables are in a form in which they can be easily tested (making
something measurable, e.g. turing aggression into hitting / swearing / kicking)
Standardised procedures = a set of procedures which are the same for all participants in order to be able
to repeat the study (includes standardised instructions - instructions given to participants to tell them how
to perform the set task) - if procedure not same for all then results may vary due to changes in procedure
rather than due to IV
● In an experiment there is an IV which is deliberately changed to see if it has any effect on the DV
- this allows us to draw causal conclusions (e.g. whether having the TV on or off changed the
results of test)
● Disadvantage of using median values in results - doesn't account for outliers as only middle
numbers
● Disadvantage of questionnaires in experiment - SDB + demand characteristics
● Strength of questionnaires in experiment - saves time as they do it on their own
External validity
Internal validity = controlled conditions (= high internal validity)
External validity = how appropriately the results from the research can be used to explain real life
behaviour, is the sample representative, can you generalise? (e.g. age, gender, location, time…)
Ecological validity = the setting where the research takes place (e.g. doing a test on a rugby pitch means
low ecological validity as we are not used to it, doing it in a classroom means high ecological validity)
Mundane realism = how much does task itself reflect the real world (e.g. IQ test would have low mundane
realism as we are not used to doing it but a 12 marker would have high mundane realism)
Demand characteristics = participant changes behaviour / words to what they think thought was required
of them (effect internal validity)
● How appropriately the results from the research can be used to explain real life behaviour (can
you generalise)
Types of external validity:
● Population validity (people sample is not representative) - e.g. location, age, gender, social group
● Historical validity (would the findings still be relevant now?)
● Ecological validity (setting - whether it represents where the behaviour would be occurring in the
real world, is the setting realistic, e.g. doing a test in a classroom vs outside)
● Mundane realism (whether the task reflects what they would be doing in the real world)
, Observations
Social Desirability Bias (SDB) = changing behaviour to look better
Observer bias = the observers may inaccurately assign meaning to a particular behaviour because of
their knowledge of the research (make assumption) - decreases internal validity
Demand characteristics = when you behave how you think you should for the purpose of the experiment
Controlled
● Keeping the situation consistent between participants as manipulation has occurred
● Will take place in an artificial setting
● Researcher has created this in purpose for the study
● Tight conditions, keep all variables the same apart from the IV
Advantage:
- Check for reliability - as easier to repeat
- High internal validity - can conclude more causality (cause and effect) with confidence
Disadvantage:
- Low external validity - due to situation being artificial (unlikely to reflect real world so low
ecological validity)
Naturalistic
● Observation takes place with no influence from researcher to keep the setting / behaviours as
realistic as possible
Advantage:
- Very realistic - high external validity
- More representative of actual behaviour
Disadvantage:
- No control - low internal validity (can’t trust conclusions on why things are happening)
Overt
● Participants are aware that there being observed
Advantage:
- Have consent from participants (ethics is higher)
Disadvantage:
- Know they’re being watched so adapt behaviour, DC & SDB - reduces internal validity
Convert
● Participants are unaware they are being observed
Advantage:
- Participants wont charge behaviour, more likely to act genuinely, less desired characteristics,
SDB - increases internal validity
Disadvantage:
- Don't have consent (ethical issues)
