Lecture 1: Public Relations - an introduction
Public Relations: what is it?
● Managing of communication of an organization, e.g., negotiation of points of views and bridging interests
(Grunig)
● The development of relationships to help communicate about an organization, an issue, a person or a
product (Gordon)
● Management of a mutual understanding between an organization and its publics (Cutlip)
Important terminologies
Organizations
● ‘Organizations’ is a term that we will use a lot
● Organizations complies a broader range of institutions than ‘firm’ or ‘company’
- When we talk of companies we discuss commercial entities
- Organization implies a number of other institutions that do not necessarily sell something but that
might still be involved in Public Relations
- Examples of organizations: European Commission, Amnesty International, Zilveren Kruis, Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam
Five themes
● Crisis communication - how organizations frame communication in order to limit the damages from crisis,
depending on the origin of the crisis
● Media effects - how does the media influence public opinion and how can organizations influence the media
agenda
● Corporate Social Responsibility - what are an organization’s responsibilities beyond profit and how can
they be effectively communicated to the public
● Social media - how can organizations use social media so as to build and maintain a relationship with their
relevant audiences
● Internal communication - how should organizations facilitate communication with and within their
employees in a way that fosters a positive environment
Lecture 2: Public Relations - Crisis communication (theme session)
What is a crisis?
A crisis is a turning point in a situation, where an important change takes place, that could determine a negative
outcome. For organizations, crises include:
● Natural crises (floods, earthquakes, fires)
● Political crises (corruption, changes in government)
● Internal crises (misconduct, abuse)
When there is exposure, there is space for a reputational crisis.
- Examples of crises: Boeing, John de Mol, Ticketmaster. Crises are not only about organizations, they can also
be about individuals.
Definitions of crisis that we can find in theory:
,A crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to
health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, and can seriously impact an organization’s performance and
generate negative outcomes (Coombs, 2015).
A crisis is an untimely but predictable event that has actual or potential consequences for stakeholders’ interests as well
as the reputation of the organization suffering the crisis (Millar & Heath, 2004).
Predictable or unpredictable? → this depends on the type of crisis
● Crisis can be both predictable/expected (e.g., the company sells low quality products) or
unpredictable/unexpected (e.g., natural disasters)
● But crises are, for me most part, ubiquitous (alomtegenwoordig) and unsurprising: crises occur in all
industries, social contexts, and organizational structures. Crises are just a reality in the society that we live in,
where people can easily express themselves on social media. This can fuel a crisis.
Crises are complex and multifaceted
Six blind men encounter an elephant and each man
touches another part of the elephant. They all think it
is something else. It really depends from which angle
you see the crisis. Crises are seen differently among
stakeholders.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders in a crisis can be defined as individuals, groups, communities or organizations, who may affect, be
affected by or perceive themselves to be affected by the crisis.
Why stakeholders?
● Interest around stakeholders comes from stakeholder theory, an economic theory that posits that
organizations are embedded in a series of relationships with other organizations, communities, and
institutions such as governments.
- According to stakeholder theory, the goal of an organization should be the mediation of
everyone’s interests (and not just making a profit)
- “An organization's success is dependent on how well it manages the relationships with key groups
such as customers, employees, suppliers, communities, financiers and others that can affect the
realization of its purpose” (R. Edward Freeman & Phillips, 2002)
There has been a shift from the input-output model to the stakeholder model. We no longer think that the only
stakeholders that matter are shareholders. For an organization to be healthy and wealthy, they should also focus on
other stakeholders.
,Stakeholder classification: why and how
Organizations as networks
Most organizations, no matter if NGO or commercial, are
involved in a number of relationships that include people inside
and outside of the organization. When thinking of how to
respond to a crisis, organizations should understand:
- Which stakeholders are affected
- How seriously they are affected
- What are the consequences of the stakeholders being
affected (for the stakeholders and for the organization)
… this requires a classification (otherwise it is very difficult to
design a plan to address the crisis that encompasses all the stakeholders)
Stakeholder management
At the center of establishing and maintaining relationships with stakeholders is communication. The principle of
stakeholder management is that organizations should:
- Be aware of whom to relate to in case of a crisis
- Involve stakeholders in pre-crisis preparedness, for crises that can be prevented
- Establish appropriate communication channels for each stakeholder
So this requires work that takes place not only during the crisis or from the moment that the crisis is happening, but it
involves work that is done previously to the crisis so that you have a mapping of your stakeholders ahead of the crisis.
Stakeholder management has several steps
1. Identify stakeholders: think thoroughly about all of those individuals and groups that are affected, can
affect, or are perceived to be affected by the crisis.
2. Analyze (classify) stakeholders: you sort of divide the stakeholders in groups so that you can also prioritize.
3. Plan stakeholder communication: is about how you will address your stakeholders. Depending on the
relationship that stakeholders have with your company and depending on the need for information these
stakeholders have in case of a crisis, you plan the communication with them.
4. Engage stakeholders: engaging them in the management of the crisis.
, Ways in which stakeholders can be categorized (step 2 of stakeholder management)
Primary vs. secondary
● Primary stakeholders: those who are directly, significantly or potentially affected by the activities of the
organization (employees, customers, suppliers, etc.). This can also mean those who are directly, significantly
or potentially affected by a crisis.
● Secondary stakeholders: those indirectly affected or for whom the impact is not that direct, such as the
media, special interest groups and authorities.
This will really depend on the crisis. The categorization means that the media are not primarily affected by the crisis.
They can be used as a tool to reach your primary stakeholders but they are in themselves not primary stakeholders.
Internal vs. external
● Internal stakeholders: directly affected and take part in the organization’s decision making and operations
(e.g., managers, owners, employees)
● External stakeholders: not involved in the organization’s operations (e.g., customers, suppliers, authorities)
Organizational linkage (useful in defining which role each stakeholder has in a crisis; how can I engage with each of
these stakeholders?) → you can map these stakeholders beforehand
● Normative stakeholders: those the organization has a common interest with, shares similar problems or
values. For example, universities and middle schools might be each other's normative stakeholders.
● Diffusive stakeholders: stakeholders who are not involved in a company and only appear in the context of a
crisis (e.g., the media or activists)
● Functional stakeholders: stakeholders who are essential for the management of a crisis (e.g., (depending on
the crisis) public security, police, ambulance, etc.)
● Enabling stakeholders: stakeholders who have the authority to define the parameters of a company’s crisis
management (e.g., regulators, government, etc.)
Matrix model
Categorizes stakeholders depending on their interest and power & influence
● Interest = how involved stakeholders are in a crisis
● Power & influence = how many other stakeholders can they influence
A. High power / low interest: stakeholders in
this category can have a lot of influence if they decide
to use their power, but not a lot of interest in doing
so.
B. High power / high interest: this group
includes key stakeholders who should be involved in
decision-making
C. Low power / low interest: stakeholders who
barely can influence the management of the crisis
(but monitor them, because stakeholders can shift)
D. Low power / high interest: stakeholders who are directly affected by the crisis, but, but might not have the
power to be heard.
Stakeholder attitude mapping
- You do this before and after a crisis
Public Relations: what is it?
● Managing of communication of an organization, e.g., negotiation of points of views and bridging interests
(Grunig)
● The development of relationships to help communicate about an organization, an issue, a person or a
product (Gordon)
● Management of a mutual understanding between an organization and its publics (Cutlip)
Important terminologies
Organizations
● ‘Organizations’ is a term that we will use a lot
● Organizations complies a broader range of institutions than ‘firm’ or ‘company’
- When we talk of companies we discuss commercial entities
- Organization implies a number of other institutions that do not necessarily sell something but that
might still be involved in Public Relations
- Examples of organizations: European Commission, Amnesty International, Zilveren Kruis, Vrije
Universiteit Amsterdam
Five themes
● Crisis communication - how organizations frame communication in order to limit the damages from crisis,
depending on the origin of the crisis
● Media effects - how does the media influence public opinion and how can organizations influence the media
agenda
● Corporate Social Responsibility - what are an organization’s responsibilities beyond profit and how can
they be effectively communicated to the public
● Social media - how can organizations use social media so as to build and maintain a relationship with their
relevant audiences
● Internal communication - how should organizations facilitate communication with and within their
employees in a way that fosters a positive environment
Lecture 2: Public Relations - Crisis communication (theme session)
What is a crisis?
A crisis is a turning point in a situation, where an important change takes place, that could determine a negative
outcome. For organizations, crises include:
● Natural crises (floods, earthquakes, fires)
● Political crises (corruption, changes in government)
● Internal crises (misconduct, abuse)
When there is exposure, there is space for a reputational crisis.
- Examples of crises: Boeing, John de Mol, Ticketmaster. Crises are not only about organizations, they can also
be about individuals.
Definitions of crisis that we can find in theory:
,A crisis is the perception of an unpredictable event that threatens important expectancies of stakeholders related to
health, safety, environmental, and economic issues, and can seriously impact an organization’s performance and
generate negative outcomes (Coombs, 2015).
A crisis is an untimely but predictable event that has actual or potential consequences for stakeholders’ interests as well
as the reputation of the organization suffering the crisis (Millar & Heath, 2004).
Predictable or unpredictable? → this depends on the type of crisis
● Crisis can be both predictable/expected (e.g., the company sells low quality products) or
unpredictable/unexpected (e.g., natural disasters)
● But crises are, for me most part, ubiquitous (alomtegenwoordig) and unsurprising: crises occur in all
industries, social contexts, and organizational structures. Crises are just a reality in the society that we live in,
where people can easily express themselves on social media. This can fuel a crisis.
Crises are complex and multifaceted
Six blind men encounter an elephant and each man
touches another part of the elephant. They all think it
is something else. It really depends from which angle
you see the crisis. Crises are seen differently among
stakeholders.
Stakeholders
Stakeholders in a crisis can be defined as individuals, groups, communities or organizations, who may affect, be
affected by or perceive themselves to be affected by the crisis.
Why stakeholders?
● Interest around stakeholders comes from stakeholder theory, an economic theory that posits that
organizations are embedded in a series of relationships with other organizations, communities, and
institutions such as governments.
- According to stakeholder theory, the goal of an organization should be the mediation of
everyone’s interests (and not just making a profit)
- “An organization's success is dependent on how well it manages the relationships with key groups
such as customers, employees, suppliers, communities, financiers and others that can affect the
realization of its purpose” (R. Edward Freeman & Phillips, 2002)
There has been a shift from the input-output model to the stakeholder model. We no longer think that the only
stakeholders that matter are shareholders. For an organization to be healthy and wealthy, they should also focus on
other stakeholders.
,Stakeholder classification: why and how
Organizations as networks
Most organizations, no matter if NGO or commercial, are
involved in a number of relationships that include people inside
and outside of the organization. When thinking of how to
respond to a crisis, organizations should understand:
- Which stakeholders are affected
- How seriously they are affected
- What are the consequences of the stakeholders being
affected (for the stakeholders and for the organization)
… this requires a classification (otherwise it is very difficult to
design a plan to address the crisis that encompasses all the stakeholders)
Stakeholder management
At the center of establishing and maintaining relationships with stakeholders is communication. The principle of
stakeholder management is that organizations should:
- Be aware of whom to relate to in case of a crisis
- Involve stakeholders in pre-crisis preparedness, for crises that can be prevented
- Establish appropriate communication channels for each stakeholder
So this requires work that takes place not only during the crisis or from the moment that the crisis is happening, but it
involves work that is done previously to the crisis so that you have a mapping of your stakeholders ahead of the crisis.
Stakeholder management has several steps
1. Identify stakeholders: think thoroughly about all of those individuals and groups that are affected, can
affect, or are perceived to be affected by the crisis.
2. Analyze (classify) stakeholders: you sort of divide the stakeholders in groups so that you can also prioritize.
3. Plan stakeholder communication: is about how you will address your stakeholders. Depending on the
relationship that stakeholders have with your company and depending on the need for information these
stakeholders have in case of a crisis, you plan the communication with them.
4. Engage stakeholders: engaging them in the management of the crisis.
, Ways in which stakeholders can be categorized (step 2 of stakeholder management)
Primary vs. secondary
● Primary stakeholders: those who are directly, significantly or potentially affected by the activities of the
organization (employees, customers, suppliers, etc.). This can also mean those who are directly, significantly
or potentially affected by a crisis.
● Secondary stakeholders: those indirectly affected or for whom the impact is not that direct, such as the
media, special interest groups and authorities.
This will really depend on the crisis. The categorization means that the media are not primarily affected by the crisis.
They can be used as a tool to reach your primary stakeholders but they are in themselves not primary stakeholders.
Internal vs. external
● Internal stakeholders: directly affected and take part in the organization’s decision making and operations
(e.g., managers, owners, employees)
● External stakeholders: not involved in the organization’s operations (e.g., customers, suppliers, authorities)
Organizational linkage (useful in defining which role each stakeholder has in a crisis; how can I engage with each of
these stakeholders?) → you can map these stakeholders beforehand
● Normative stakeholders: those the organization has a common interest with, shares similar problems or
values. For example, universities and middle schools might be each other's normative stakeholders.
● Diffusive stakeholders: stakeholders who are not involved in a company and only appear in the context of a
crisis (e.g., the media or activists)
● Functional stakeholders: stakeholders who are essential for the management of a crisis (e.g., (depending on
the crisis) public security, police, ambulance, etc.)
● Enabling stakeholders: stakeholders who have the authority to define the parameters of a company’s crisis
management (e.g., regulators, government, etc.)
Matrix model
Categorizes stakeholders depending on their interest and power & influence
● Interest = how involved stakeholders are in a crisis
● Power & influence = how many other stakeholders can they influence
A. High power / low interest: stakeholders in
this category can have a lot of influence if they decide
to use their power, but not a lot of interest in doing
so.
B. High power / high interest: this group
includes key stakeholders who should be involved in
decision-making
C. Low power / low interest: stakeholders who
barely can influence the management of the crisis
(but monitor them, because stakeholders can shift)
D. Low power / high interest: stakeholders who are directly affected by the crisis, but, but might not have the
power to be heard.
Stakeholder attitude mapping
- You do this before and after a crisis
