Summary Introduction to Psychological Theories
Lecture 1: The science of Psychology
Psychological science =
The study, through research, of mind, brain and behavior.
→ Aimed at understanding and predicting:
○ Behavior (actions) = what we do, can be observed
○ Mind (mental activity) = not directly observable
What is mind?
- Stuff of thought
- Mental activity
- Perceptual experiences
- Memory, thoughts and feelings
There are many levels at which you can study psychology, e.g. →
1. Group vs, individuals
2. Behavior vs. brain activity
3. Nature vs. nurture debate
What shapes our more: our genes (nature) or our environment and experiences
(nurture) → most people now agree that it’s a mix of both
Nature = we are born with traits from our parents, like eye color or a talent
for music
Nurture = we learn and grow based on how we’re raised, our culture, and
our life experiences
Journey through history of psychology
Dualism = (Descartes)
Separation of the soul/mind and the body
Structuralism = (Wilhelm Wundt)
Complex mental processes can be reduced to simpler
processes
→ e.g. perception of an orange reduced to the color and shape
Methods used → reaction time and introspection
Functionalism = (William James)
Concerned with the adaptive purpose/function of mind and behavior. Mind is more
complex than its elements → about why the mind works the way it does and how it helps
individuals survive and thrive in their environment.
Evolution = (Darwin, on the origins of Species)
Focus on the functions of behavior, the way our behavior helps us to survive and
reproduce
Genetic diversity = variety of genes within a population.
, ○ Mutation = variation (mutations are small changes in genes, and they
create differences (variation) in a population).
○ The benefits of sexual reproduction → high genetic diversity
Environmental pressures → evaluation has no foresight =
Evolution doesn't plan ahead; it happens as living things adapt to challenges in
their environment.
Natural selection =
Survival of the fittest.
Sexual selection =
Certain traits that help with reproduction (attracting mates and passing on genes)
→ e.g. like a bird's song or a peacock's colorful tail that make an individual more
attractive to mates.
Schools of thoughts (5)
Psychoanalytical approach (1) =
Mental processes operate below the level of conscious awareness.
We have unconscious drives (e.g. trauma, culture, childhood
experience).
*Some of them we can be aware of, but most of them are below the
level of conscious awareness.
○ Freud → psychoanalysis (not first one that came up with that
there is something like a consciousness, but he made it
popular, especially outside of psychology → movies, literature)
Behaviourism (2) = (Pavlov)
Only observable behavior can be subject of scientific investigation. Psychology’s focus
should be on how environments affects observable behavior.
Cognitivism (3) =
The cognitive revolution (so now further than behaviourism)
○ Exploring mental processes
○ Influences by the progress in computer science
Cognitive neuroscience =
We can infer how the mind works by looking at behavior
- Neuroimaging has even made the mind observable
Gestalt (4) =
Idea that we see things as whole patterns, not just
separate parts. It helps us understand movement or
depth in images because our brain combines
individual elements into a bigger, complete picture.
Humanistic psychology (5) =
Approach focusing on the basic goodness in people,
achieving goals, and finding fulfillment.
→ positive psychology
, The scientific method =
Based on experience, observation, existing theories, etc. come up with a question and a
prediction →
Test that prediction against real measurement from the physical world →
Make conclusions with regard to your questions, show support or lack of if for your
prediction →
Every answer gives a new question (so never ending cycle)
○ Importance of scientific method = our intuitions and even perceptions can be
biased, the scientific method can help overcome these problems.
Optimism bias =
We tend to think we are better than others and overestimate our abilities
→ example with majority of drivers rated themselves as better than average driver
Dunning-Kruger effect =
Refers to a cognitive bias where individuals with low
ability or knowledge in a particular area overestimate
their own competence.
○ Low performers tend to think they are much
more capable than they actually are
(overconfidence).
○ High performers are often more accurate in
assessing their abilities but sometimes
underestimate their relative performance
compared to others.
Availability heuristic =
We tend to think something is more likely to happen if
it's easier to remember or if we hear about it frequently.
→ e.g. if you often hear about plane crashes in the news, you might think they happen
more often than they really do, just because they come to mind easily.
, Availability bias =
Occurs when we lack information and rely on what's easily available
Confirmation bias =
The habit of paying attention to information that supports what we already believe, while
ignoring or dismissing information that goes against it.
The birthday paradox =
On average it only takes 23 people to be in the same room for
there to be a 50% chance that 2 of them share the same birthday.
How to “consume” psychological science? → with amiable scepticism
Amiable scepticism =
Friendly, open minded approach, but also being sceptic. At least
consider it, but stay critical and ask the right question to explore
the quality of the evidence
What’s new in psychology?
○ Biology (evolution)
○ Big data, computational modeling, (almost) AI
○ Culture
○ Interdisciplinary influences
Lecture 2: Basic processes of learning
Environment is never constant, individuals must adapt to ever-changing conditions of the
specific environments they live in.
Learning =
An enduring change of behavior that results from experience.
Behaviorism theories about learning (3)
1. Non-associative learning
2. Associative learning
3. Observational learning
1. Non-associative learning =
Learning from repeated exposure to a
stimulus, can either →
Decrease behavior =
Habituation (= getting used to it).
Increase behavior =
Sensitization (becoming more
responsive to the stimulus, e.g.
getting more annoyed).
Lecture 1: The science of Psychology
Psychological science =
The study, through research, of mind, brain and behavior.
→ Aimed at understanding and predicting:
○ Behavior (actions) = what we do, can be observed
○ Mind (mental activity) = not directly observable
What is mind?
- Stuff of thought
- Mental activity
- Perceptual experiences
- Memory, thoughts and feelings
There are many levels at which you can study psychology, e.g. →
1. Group vs, individuals
2. Behavior vs. brain activity
3. Nature vs. nurture debate
What shapes our more: our genes (nature) or our environment and experiences
(nurture) → most people now agree that it’s a mix of both
Nature = we are born with traits from our parents, like eye color or a talent
for music
Nurture = we learn and grow based on how we’re raised, our culture, and
our life experiences
Journey through history of psychology
Dualism = (Descartes)
Separation of the soul/mind and the body
Structuralism = (Wilhelm Wundt)
Complex mental processes can be reduced to simpler
processes
→ e.g. perception of an orange reduced to the color and shape
Methods used → reaction time and introspection
Functionalism = (William James)
Concerned with the adaptive purpose/function of mind and behavior. Mind is more
complex than its elements → about why the mind works the way it does and how it helps
individuals survive and thrive in their environment.
Evolution = (Darwin, on the origins of Species)
Focus on the functions of behavior, the way our behavior helps us to survive and
reproduce
Genetic diversity = variety of genes within a population.
, ○ Mutation = variation (mutations are small changes in genes, and they
create differences (variation) in a population).
○ The benefits of sexual reproduction → high genetic diversity
Environmental pressures → evaluation has no foresight =
Evolution doesn't plan ahead; it happens as living things adapt to challenges in
their environment.
Natural selection =
Survival of the fittest.
Sexual selection =
Certain traits that help with reproduction (attracting mates and passing on genes)
→ e.g. like a bird's song or a peacock's colorful tail that make an individual more
attractive to mates.
Schools of thoughts (5)
Psychoanalytical approach (1) =
Mental processes operate below the level of conscious awareness.
We have unconscious drives (e.g. trauma, culture, childhood
experience).
*Some of them we can be aware of, but most of them are below the
level of conscious awareness.
○ Freud → psychoanalysis (not first one that came up with that
there is something like a consciousness, but he made it
popular, especially outside of psychology → movies, literature)
Behaviourism (2) = (Pavlov)
Only observable behavior can be subject of scientific investigation. Psychology’s focus
should be on how environments affects observable behavior.
Cognitivism (3) =
The cognitive revolution (so now further than behaviourism)
○ Exploring mental processes
○ Influences by the progress in computer science
Cognitive neuroscience =
We can infer how the mind works by looking at behavior
- Neuroimaging has even made the mind observable
Gestalt (4) =
Idea that we see things as whole patterns, not just
separate parts. It helps us understand movement or
depth in images because our brain combines
individual elements into a bigger, complete picture.
Humanistic psychology (5) =
Approach focusing on the basic goodness in people,
achieving goals, and finding fulfillment.
→ positive psychology
, The scientific method =
Based on experience, observation, existing theories, etc. come up with a question and a
prediction →
Test that prediction against real measurement from the physical world →
Make conclusions with regard to your questions, show support or lack of if for your
prediction →
Every answer gives a new question (so never ending cycle)
○ Importance of scientific method = our intuitions and even perceptions can be
biased, the scientific method can help overcome these problems.
Optimism bias =
We tend to think we are better than others and overestimate our abilities
→ example with majority of drivers rated themselves as better than average driver
Dunning-Kruger effect =
Refers to a cognitive bias where individuals with low
ability or knowledge in a particular area overestimate
their own competence.
○ Low performers tend to think they are much
more capable than they actually are
(overconfidence).
○ High performers are often more accurate in
assessing their abilities but sometimes
underestimate their relative performance
compared to others.
Availability heuristic =
We tend to think something is more likely to happen if
it's easier to remember or if we hear about it frequently.
→ e.g. if you often hear about plane crashes in the news, you might think they happen
more often than they really do, just because they come to mind easily.
, Availability bias =
Occurs when we lack information and rely on what's easily available
Confirmation bias =
The habit of paying attention to information that supports what we already believe, while
ignoring or dismissing information that goes against it.
The birthday paradox =
On average it only takes 23 people to be in the same room for
there to be a 50% chance that 2 of them share the same birthday.
How to “consume” psychological science? → with amiable scepticism
Amiable scepticism =
Friendly, open minded approach, but also being sceptic. At least
consider it, but stay critical and ask the right question to explore
the quality of the evidence
What’s new in psychology?
○ Biology (evolution)
○ Big data, computational modeling, (almost) AI
○ Culture
○ Interdisciplinary influences
Lecture 2: Basic processes of learning
Environment is never constant, individuals must adapt to ever-changing conditions of the
specific environments they live in.
Learning =
An enduring change of behavior that results from experience.
Behaviorism theories about learning (3)
1. Non-associative learning
2. Associative learning
3. Observational learning
1. Non-associative learning =
Learning from repeated exposure to a
stimulus, can either →
Decrease behavior =
Habituation (= getting used to it).
Increase behavior =
Sensitization (becoming more
responsive to the stimulus, e.g.
getting more annoyed).
