Lecture 1 History of European Integration
Historical context
European unification gained political traction after WW2, with the creation of the EU federalist
movement, call for united states of Europe, BENELUX customs union, western union and finally the
creation of the council of Europe. Council of Europe is not a part of the EU which took many
member states. The creation of the EU was done in order to answer key issues on peace, economic
reconstruction and adaptability to new geopolitical changes. (Economic liberalisation was seen as
protection against communism)
Key actors
Parliament, commission, council and courts – big role in integration. Integrate in one area and then it
goes further.
We see a deepening of EU integration through the intensification of integration processes and
structures. The widening of EU integration is the enlargement of the EU but also the increasing scope
of community or union competences. Some examples include the eastern enlargement and the
economic, to political and social policies.
1950
The Schuman Plan:
To make any war between France and Germany impossible and to promote economic development by
pooling coal and steel production placing them under one high authority. If you have economic
development, it is less likely for a war to happen. Help Germany recover economically. There is a
focus on sectoral integration, consideration on the first steps towards further integration. The core
idea, largely the brainchild of French political and economic advisor Jean Monnet, was to place all
Franco-German production of coal and steel under a common supranational authority. French Foreign
Minister Robert Schuman presented this plan.
Creation of the Eu coal and steel community ECSC
It started with the Paris treaty which created the community, then there was the creation of the first
supranational institution like the high authority, common assembly and court of justice. There were
six members and after the creation of the ECSC there were plans for integration in other areas like
defence and political community which failed.
1957 Treaties of Rome
After the failures of the defence (EDC) and political community (EPC) there were plans to relaunch
integration in different economic sectors and the creation of a customs union. Committed to the
adoption of the customs union and a common commercial, agricultural and transport policies –
common market. This was dome through the establishment of the European Economic Community
and the European Atomic Energy Community. (established in the treaty of Rome) Here there were two
trading blocks, the inner six, supranational cooperation, and the outer seven, intergovernmental
cooperation through the free trade association.
1960-1970
Empty chairs crisis due to Charles de Gaulle says non to Uk membership. Fear of rivalry from the
UK. Empty chair crisis he was blocking the decision-making process, as it was too big of a threat to
France. The Luxembourg Compromise recognized that if integration posed a threat to a nation's very
important interests, the Council of Ministers would continue discussions until a mutually acceptable
solution was reached, thereby allowing a de facto veto power to any member state on sensitive issues.
This compromise provided ms with a de facto verto over council decisions that formally only requier
double majority to be adopted. Charles left office and a new boost to plans for further integration
where Denmark, Ireland and Uk join.
,Key points
- Supranational integration was limited to the six and was established by three community ties:
EEC, ECSC, EAEC.
- Progess in development of EEC was notices as well as the faliure to enlarge the Empty chairs
crisis
- Plans for economic and monetary union and further integration foundered in 1970’s; enlarged
communities faced recession
- Enlagred communities were faced with challenges of more diverse membership.
1980 Towards a European Union
Enlargement occures by greece, portugal and spain.
The single european act with a goal to establish a single market by free movement of persons,
capital, goods and services. Trade liberalisation to deal with inconsistencies will create employment
growth. The SEA gave the EU parliament more say by exchanging decision making procedures and
extended the Communities competences, like environment, social and economic cohesion.
The fall of berlin wall and the age of bipolarity had ended (cold war), there were geopolitical changes,
and prospect for German reunification.
1992 Treaty on European Union
Maastricht treaty set out a timeline for economic monetary union, expanded competences in different
areas and established Eu citizenship. Citizenship came with certain rights like freedom of movement
and voting. Then there was the creation of new institutions like central bank, committee of the regions
and ombudsman. (investigative institution)
Three pillar structure: EU communities so the EC, ECSC, EAEC (P1), common foreign and security
policy CFSP (P2), cooperation on justice and home affairs JHA (P3).
Is it really a union? Some argue that intergovernmentalism in P2 and P3 threatened the supranational
community method in P1. The EMY created a three tier Europe with full participants (T1), those that
didn’t meet convergence criteria were excluded from single currency (T2), those who availed opt-
outs.(Uk and Denmark) (T3)
The social chapter did not apply to the Uk as they joined with the Treaty of Amsterdam, Danish opt-
out from foreign policy decisions and actions that have defence implication. Concerns about Europe a
la carte.
Key points
- EU was created in 1993, despite the ever closer union of the EC ms
- TEU created a new entity, the European union
- The EU lacked structure (pillars, one supranational and two intergovernmental)
- TEU introduced treaty-based opt-outs from certain policy areas for ms
1990 Treaty of Amsterdam
Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. Discussions about core Europe, variable geometry, and
multi-speed EU.
Treaty of Amsterdam: Area of Freedom, Security and Justice’ becomes a core aim of the EU, this is
an example of spill over. Communitarization of Justice and Home Affairs (pillar III now focused on
police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters). Introduced possibilities for enhanced
cooperation, Schengen cooperation became integrated in the EU. Introduced reforms to pillar II
(CFSP), i.a. Created the post of High Representative, transferred the Petersberg tasks to the EU,
allowed constructive abstention, so that ms abstaining would not block CFSP initiatives. (Petersberg
task of humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping)
Creation of the Euro.
2000
Treaty of Nice
Had to deal with Amsterdam leftovers but did move towards an ever-closer union.
, Euroskepticism
Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe was rejected in referenda in France and the
Netherlands. Goal was to simplify the EU and make it more comprehensible, democratic,
and efficient. The Constitutional Treaty would replace all existing EU documents with a single
constitutional document. The CT introduced fundamental rights, and clauses on a permanent
President of the European Council. It also established a new post of Union Minister for Foreign
Affairs.
Lisbon treaty
Altered the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and created the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union. (TFEU) Goal was to increase the democratic legitimacy and efficiency
of the EU. Many aspects were similar to the Constitutional Treaty. It kept clauses on a President of
the European Council, but used the term High Representative of Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy (instead of Union Minister for Foreign Affairs). Enhanced the voice of citizens and
national parliaments. Lisbon Treaty used less ’constitutional’ language and made fewer references to
symbolism.
Three pillar treaty which was abolished by the Lisbon treaty. First pillar was one supranational power
where states give out more sovereignty and integration is the greatest, community pillar. States were
not willing to seek authority on these kinds of matters in pillar 2, with different speeds of integration.
2010-2022 Post Lisbon era
The Eurozone crisis and its aftermath – led to calls for treaty reforms to provide EU with necessary
competences and improve institutional framework for economic governance.
2011: The Treaty Establishing the European Stability Mechanism (ESM) (the ESM becomes
operational in 2012). Provided financial assistance to eurozone countries in funding sovereign depts.
2013: Fiscal Compact
2015: Start of migration crisis.
2016: Brexit referendum → UK triggered ‘Article 50.’ (see lecture 10).
2019: Start of the Covid pandemic.
2020: The UK leaves the EU.
2022: Russia invades Ukraine (again) → Ukraine (and Moldova) granted EU candidate status.
Increased the likelihood of further treaty change.
Historical context
European unification gained political traction after WW2, with the creation of the EU federalist
movement, call for united states of Europe, BENELUX customs union, western union and finally the
creation of the council of Europe. Council of Europe is not a part of the EU which took many
member states. The creation of the EU was done in order to answer key issues on peace, economic
reconstruction and adaptability to new geopolitical changes. (Economic liberalisation was seen as
protection against communism)
Key actors
Parliament, commission, council and courts – big role in integration. Integrate in one area and then it
goes further.
We see a deepening of EU integration through the intensification of integration processes and
structures. The widening of EU integration is the enlargement of the EU but also the increasing scope
of community or union competences. Some examples include the eastern enlargement and the
economic, to political and social policies.
1950
The Schuman Plan:
To make any war between France and Germany impossible and to promote economic development by
pooling coal and steel production placing them under one high authority. If you have economic
development, it is less likely for a war to happen. Help Germany recover economically. There is a
focus on sectoral integration, consideration on the first steps towards further integration. The core
idea, largely the brainchild of French political and economic advisor Jean Monnet, was to place all
Franco-German production of coal and steel under a common supranational authority. French Foreign
Minister Robert Schuman presented this plan.
Creation of the Eu coal and steel community ECSC
It started with the Paris treaty which created the community, then there was the creation of the first
supranational institution like the high authority, common assembly and court of justice. There were
six members and after the creation of the ECSC there were plans for integration in other areas like
defence and political community which failed.
1957 Treaties of Rome
After the failures of the defence (EDC) and political community (EPC) there were plans to relaunch
integration in different economic sectors and the creation of a customs union. Committed to the
adoption of the customs union and a common commercial, agricultural and transport policies –
common market. This was dome through the establishment of the European Economic Community
and the European Atomic Energy Community. (established in the treaty of Rome) Here there were two
trading blocks, the inner six, supranational cooperation, and the outer seven, intergovernmental
cooperation through the free trade association.
1960-1970
Empty chairs crisis due to Charles de Gaulle says non to Uk membership. Fear of rivalry from the
UK. Empty chair crisis he was blocking the decision-making process, as it was too big of a threat to
France. The Luxembourg Compromise recognized that if integration posed a threat to a nation's very
important interests, the Council of Ministers would continue discussions until a mutually acceptable
solution was reached, thereby allowing a de facto veto power to any member state on sensitive issues.
This compromise provided ms with a de facto verto over council decisions that formally only requier
double majority to be adopted. Charles left office and a new boost to plans for further integration
where Denmark, Ireland and Uk join.
,Key points
- Supranational integration was limited to the six and was established by three community ties:
EEC, ECSC, EAEC.
- Progess in development of EEC was notices as well as the faliure to enlarge the Empty chairs
crisis
- Plans for economic and monetary union and further integration foundered in 1970’s; enlarged
communities faced recession
- Enlagred communities were faced with challenges of more diverse membership.
1980 Towards a European Union
Enlargement occures by greece, portugal and spain.
The single european act with a goal to establish a single market by free movement of persons,
capital, goods and services. Trade liberalisation to deal with inconsistencies will create employment
growth. The SEA gave the EU parliament more say by exchanging decision making procedures and
extended the Communities competences, like environment, social and economic cohesion.
The fall of berlin wall and the age of bipolarity had ended (cold war), there were geopolitical changes,
and prospect for German reunification.
1992 Treaty on European Union
Maastricht treaty set out a timeline for economic monetary union, expanded competences in different
areas and established Eu citizenship. Citizenship came with certain rights like freedom of movement
and voting. Then there was the creation of new institutions like central bank, committee of the regions
and ombudsman. (investigative institution)
Three pillar structure: EU communities so the EC, ECSC, EAEC (P1), common foreign and security
policy CFSP (P2), cooperation on justice and home affairs JHA (P3).
Is it really a union? Some argue that intergovernmentalism in P2 and P3 threatened the supranational
community method in P1. The EMY created a three tier Europe with full participants (T1), those that
didn’t meet convergence criteria were excluded from single currency (T2), those who availed opt-
outs.(Uk and Denmark) (T3)
The social chapter did not apply to the Uk as they joined with the Treaty of Amsterdam, Danish opt-
out from foreign policy decisions and actions that have defence implication. Concerns about Europe a
la carte.
Key points
- EU was created in 1993, despite the ever closer union of the EC ms
- TEU created a new entity, the European union
- The EU lacked structure (pillars, one supranational and two intergovernmental)
- TEU introduced treaty-based opt-outs from certain policy areas for ms
1990 Treaty of Amsterdam
Austria, Finland and Sweden join the EU. Discussions about core Europe, variable geometry, and
multi-speed EU.
Treaty of Amsterdam: Area of Freedom, Security and Justice’ becomes a core aim of the EU, this is
an example of spill over. Communitarization of Justice and Home Affairs (pillar III now focused on
police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters). Introduced possibilities for enhanced
cooperation, Schengen cooperation became integrated in the EU. Introduced reforms to pillar II
(CFSP), i.a. Created the post of High Representative, transferred the Petersberg tasks to the EU,
allowed constructive abstention, so that ms abstaining would not block CFSP initiatives. (Petersberg
task of humanitarian and rescue tasks, peacekeeping)
Creation of the Euro.
2000
Treaty of Nice
Had to deal with Amsterdam leftovers but did move towards an ever-closer union.
, Euroskepticism
Treaty Establishing a Constitution for Europe was rejected in referenda in France and the
Netherlands. Goal was to simplify the EU and make it more comprehensible, democratic,
and efficient. The Constitutional Treaty would replace all existing EU documents with a single
constitutional document. The CT introduced fundamental rights, and clauses on a permanent
President of the European Council. It also established a new post of Union Minister for Foreign
Affairs.
Lisbon treaty
Altered the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and created the Treaty on the Functioning of the
European Union. (TFEU) Goal was to increase the democratic legitimacy and efficiency
of the EU. Many aspects were similar to the Constitutional Treaty. It kept clauses on a President of
the European Council, but used the term High Representative of Union for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy (instead of Union Minister for Foreign Affairs). Enhanced the voice of citizens and
national parliaments. Lisbon Treaty used less ’constitutional’ language and made fewer references to
symbolism.
Three pillar treaty which was abolished by the Lisbon treaty. First pillar was one supranational power
where states give out more sovereignty and integration is the greatest, community pillar. States were
not willing to seek authority on these kinds of matters in pillar 2, with different speeds of integration.
2010-2022 Post Lisbon era
The Eurozone crisis and its aftermath – led to calls for treaty reforms to provide EU with necessary
competences and improve institutional framework for economic governance.
2011: The Treaty Establishing the European Stability Mechanism (ESM) (the ESM becomes
operational in 2012). Provided financial assistance to eurozone countries in funding sovereign depts.
2013: Fiscal Compact
2015: Start of migration crisis.
2016: Brexit referendum → UK triggered ‘Article 50.’ (see lecture 10).
2019: Start of the Covid pandemic.
2020: The UK leaves the EU.
2022: Russia invades Ukraine (again) → Ukraine (and Moldova) granted EU candidate status.
Increased the likelihood of further treaty change.
