Motivation Articles Summary
WEEK 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Lecture 1....................................................................................................................................... 2
ARTICLE Gieseler et al.- What makes for a good theory? How to evaluate a theory using the strength
model of self-control as an example (2019) ........................................................................................... 2
ARTICLE Yaeger & Dweck- What can be learned from Growth Mindset controversies? (2020) ................ 4
Lecture 2....................................................................................................................................... 7
ARTICLE Stanton & Schultheiss- The hormonal correlates of implicit power motivation ........................ 7
ARTICLE Robinson et al.- Roles of wanting and liking in motivating behavior: gambling, food and drug
addiction............................................................................................................................................... 8
WEEK 2 .......................................................................................................................................13
Lecture 3......................................................................................................................................13
ARTICLE Gendolla et al.- Effort intensity: some insights from the cardiovascular system .................... 13
ARTICLE Inzlicht et al.- The effort paradox: effort is both costly and valued.......................................... 16
Lecture 4......................................................................................................................................17
ARTICLE Brunstein- Implicit and explicit motives................................................................................. 17
ARTICLE Schultheiss & Wirth- Biopsychological aspects of motivation ............................................... 19
WEEK 3 .......................................................................................................................................23
Lecture 5......................................................................................................................................23
Reeve- Chapter 5- Extrinsic motivation and internalization (2018) ....................................................... 23
Reeve- Chapter 6- psychological needs (2018) .................................................................................... 28
WEEK 5 .......................................................................................................................................32
Lecture 6......................................................................................................................................32
Article Carver & Scheier- Cybernetic control processes and the self-regulation of behavior ................ 32
ARTICLE Kruglanski et al.- The architecture of goal systems: multifinality, equifinality, and
counterfinality in means-end relations ................................................................................................ 35
WEEK 6 .......................................................................................................................................38
Lecture 7......................................................................................................................................38
ARTICLE Kool et al.- Do demanding conditions help or hurt self-regulation? ........................................ 38
ARTICLE Murayama et al.- Achievement goals (2012) .......................................................................... 40
WEEK 7 .......................................................................................................................................43
Lecture 8......................................................................................................................................43
ARTICLE Keller et al.- Mindset theory of action phases and if-then planning (2019) ............................. 43
, ARTICLE Verplanken & Orbell- Habit and behavior change (2019) ........................................................ 45
ARTICLE- Impulse and self-control from a dual systems perspective................................................... 49
Lecture 9......................................................................................................................................53
ARTICLE- Kuhl et al.- The functional architecture of human motivation: personality systems interactions
theory (2021) ....................................................................................................................................... 53
WEEK 1
Lecture 1
ARTICLE Gieseler et al.- What makes for a good theory? How to evaluate a theory using the
strength model of self-control as an example (2019)
The strength model of self-control
People behave as if self-control was a general capacity that is limited and can be depleted.
2 central assumptions:
1. Self-control draws on a limited resource: the exertion of self-control increases the
probability of self-control failure in subsequent attempts
2. Self-control is a domain-general construct → exertion of self-control in one domain will
increase the likelihood of self-control failure in any other domain that requires self-
control
→ cause-effect relation between the exertion of self-control and the subsequent impairment in
self-control performance.
Ego depletion: the state of reduced self-control resources
Self-Control: “Ability to override or change one’s inner responses, as well as to interrupt
undesired behavioral tendencies (such as impulses) and refrain from acting on them”
Ego Depletion Effect: A person shows impaired performance in self-control demanding tasks
after she has previously exerted self-control (compared to a control group that has not exerted
self-control in task 1).
The sequential task paradigm has provided evidence for the ego depletion effect.
- Lot of doubt from researchers whether the ego depletion effect is a real phenomenon
Behavioral versus process level of psychological phenomena
Behavioral level of analysis: Defining behavioral effects exclusively in terms of elements in
the environment.
→ Which elements in the environment lead to a certain behavior?
- Strength model of self-control: link between the self-control exertion in time one and
self-control performance at time two
Process level of analysis: Examining the nature of underlying mental processes that are
assumed to guide behavior/behavioral effects.
→ Via which underlying mental process(es) do certain elements in the environment lead to a
certain behavior?
- Strength model of self-control: the behavioral effect is mediated by the depletion of an
internal, limited resource
Theoretical perspective: criteria to evaluate the quality of theories
, 1. Consistency
1. When it does not correspond to empirical observation it is needed to adjust the
theory
2. Strength model: several situational and dispositional moderators (affirming core
personal values/ being incentivized to perform well) have been identified that
presumably prevent or counteract ego depletion effect
▪ Lot of studies that fail to find ego depletion effects without moderating
variables being able to explain these inconsistent data → conceptual and
empirical work is needed to address this
2. Precision
3. Imprecise leaves room for subjective interpretation of empirical findings
4. Strength model: lacked precise definition of self-control
▪ The reduction of a limited resource as an underlying mechanism is too
imprecise
▪ If researchers don’t know how to manipulate the exertion of self-control,
it is difficult to distinguish the results and provide conclusive evidence
3. Parsimony
5. As few assumptions as possible
6. Strength model: only two central assumptions
4. Generality
7. Strength model: proposed explanatory breadth of the model is large
5. Falsifiability
8. Popper: a theory can never be inductively proven to be true
9. When there are more exceptions to the theory than standard cases, a theory
becomes unfalsifiable
10. Strength model: due to the imprecision of the definition of self-control, it is hard
to falsify
6. Progress
11. Strength model: extraordinary successful in stimulating empirical work and
theory across different fields
Empirical perspective: criteria to evaluate research on a theory
1. Statistical power
12. Increases with larger effect and sample sizes
13. When low, a study is less likely to detect a true effect
14. Strength model: ego depletion is small in size and has low statistical power →
but still a lot of significant effects are found
2. Operationalization and manipulation check
, 15. Operationalization: the process of defining an instrument to measure a
phenomenon that is not directly observable
▪ Operational definitions: resulting representations of the phenomenon
→ they have to fit the theory to be able to draw conclusions
16. Manipulation checks to test whether an independent variable is successfully
manipulated the construct
17. Strength model: lot of operational definitions regarding ego depletion → to what
extent does this reliably and validly manipulate the underlying construct (self-
control)
▪ Ego depletion studies no use of manipulation checks
3. P-Hacking and publication bias
18. P-hacking: researchers engaging in questionable research practices to make
nonsignificant analyses statistically significant → it is hacked to significance →
increase the rates of false positives
▪ Finding of a “true” effect that does not exist in real life or is way smaller
19. Strength model: has been used for the ego depletion research
20. Publication bias: the observation that studies with statistically significant
results are more likely to be published than nonsignificant studies → distorted
perception of the magnitude and robustness of research literature
4. Moderation and mediation
21. Moderators: reveal important boundary conditions of effects proposed by a
theory
22. Strength model: lot of moderators used in ego depletion studies
23. Mediation: test assumptions about the underlying process of a phenomenon →
distinct between different theoretical explanations of the same observation,
providing more robust evidence
24. Strength model: mediation is rare
5. Meta-analyses
25. Combine the results of multiple relevant studies in a research → higher
statistical power, examine moderators across studies
▪ Quality is depended on the primary studies → can be distorted by
publication bias
26. Strength model: has been publication bias → little evidence that ego depletion is
a real phenomenon
6. Registered Replication Reports (RRR)
= multi-lab, high-quality replications of important experiments in psychological science
along with comments by the authors of the original studies
27. Great statistical power to test a central prediction
28. Restricted to replicating one specific, operationalization
29. Strength model: one RRR about ego depletion, but had methodological issues
ARTICLE Yaeger & Dweck- What can be learned from Growth Mindset controversies? (2020)
Growth mindset: the belief that personal characteristics (like intellectual abilities) can be
developed.
- People who hold this believe more likely to thrive in times of difficulty
Fixed mindset: the belief that personal characteristics are fixed and unchangeable.
- People who hold this believe more likely to shy away from challenges
Controversy 1: do mindsets predict student outcomes?
Mindset theory grows out of attribution and achievement goal theory.
WEEK 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 2
Lecture 1....................................................................................................................................... 2
ARTICLE Gieseler et al.- What makes for a good theory? How to evaluate a theory using the strength
model of self-control as an example (2019) ........................................................................................... 2
ARTICLE Yaeger & Dweck- What can be learned from Growth Mindset controversies? (2020) ................ 4
Lecture 2....................................................................................................................................... 7
ARTICLE Stanton & Schultheiss- The hormonal correlates of implicit power motivation ........................ 7
ARTICLE Robinson et al.- Roles of wanting and liking in motivating behavior: gambling, food and drug
addiction............................................................................................................................................... 8
WEEK 2 .......................................................................................................................................13
Lecture 3......................................................................................................................................13
ARTICLE Gendolla et al.- Effort intensity: some insights from the cardiovascular system .................... 13
ARTICLE Inzlicht et al.- The effort paradox: effort is both costly and valued.......................................... 16
Lecture 4......................................................................................................................................17
ARTICLE Brunstein- Implicit and explicit motives................................................................................. 17
ARTICLE Schultheiss & Wirth- Biopsychological aspects of motivation ............................................... 19
WEEK 3 .......................................................................................................................................23
Lecture 5......................................................................................................................................23
Reeve- Chapter 5- Extrinsic motivation and internalization (2018) ....................................................... 23
Reeve- Chapter 6- psychological needs (2018) .................................................................................... 28
WEEK 5 .......................................................................................................................................32
Lecture 6......................................................................................................................................32
Article Carver & Scheier- Cybernetic control processes and the self-regulation of behavior ................ 32
ARTICLE Kruglanski et al.- The architecture of goal systems: multifinality, equifinality, and
counterfinality in means-end relations ................................................................................................ 35
WEEK 6 .......................................................................................................................................38
Lecture 7......................................................................................................................................38
ARTICLE Kool et al.- Do demanding conditions help or hurt self-regulation? ........................................ 38
ARTICLE Murayama et al.- Achievement goals (2012) .......................................................................... 40
WEEK 7 .......................................................................................................................................43
Lecture 8......................................................................................................................................43
ARTICLE Keller et al.- Mindset theory of action phases and if-then planning (2019) ............................. 43
, ARTICLE Verplanken & Orbell- Habit and behavior change (2019) ........................................................ 45
ARTICLE- Impulse and self-control from a dual systems perspective................................................... 49
Lecture 9......................................................................................................................................53
ARTICLE- Kuhl et al.- The functional architecture of human motivation: personality systems interactions
theory (2021) ....................................................................................................................................... 53
WEEK 1
Lecture 1
ARTICLE Gieseler et al.- What makes for a good theory? How to evaluate a theory using the
strength model of self-control as an example (2019)
The strength model of self-control
People behave as if self-control was a general capacity that is limited and can be depleted.
2 central assumptions:
1. Self-control draws on a limited resource: the exertion of self-control increases the
probability of self-control failure in subsequent attempts
2. Self-control is a domain-general construct → exertion of self-control in one domain will
increase the likelihood of self-control failure in any other domain that requires self-
control
→ cause-effect relation between the exertion of self-control and the subsequent impairment in
self-control performance.
Ego depletion: the state of reduced self-control resources
Self-Control: “Ability to override or change one’s inner responses, as well as to interrupt
undesired behavioral tendencies (such as impulses) and refrain from acting on them”
Ego Depletion Effect: A person shows impaired performance in self-control demanding tasks
after she has previously exerted self-control (compared to a control group that has not exerted
self-control in task 1).
The sequential task paradigm has provided evidence for the ego depletion effect.
- Lot of doubt from researchers whether the ego depletion effect is a real phenomenon
Behavioral versus process level of psychological phenomena
Behavioral level of analysis: Defining behavioral effects exclusively in terms of elements in
the environment.
→ Which elements in the environment lead to a certain behavior?
- Strength model of self-control: link between the self-control exertion in time one and
self-control performance at time two
Process level of analysis: Examining the nature of underlying mental processes that are
assumed to guide behavior/behavioral effects.
→ Via which underlying mental process(es) do certain elements in the environment lead to a
certain behavior?
- Strength model of self-control: the behavioral effect is mediated by the depletion of an
internal, limited resource
Theoretical perspective: criteria to evaluate the quality of theories
, 1. Consistency
1. When it does not correspond to empirical observation it is needed to adjust the
theory
2. Strength model: several situational and dispositional moderators (affirming core
personal values/ being incentivized to perform well) have been identified that
presumably prevent or counteract ego depletion effect
▪ Lot of studies that fail to find ego depletion effects without moderating
variables being able to explain these inconsistent data → conceptual and
empirical work is needed to address this
2. Precision
3. Imprecise leaves room for subjective interpretation of empirical findings
4. Strength model: lacked precise definition of self-control
▪ The reduction of a limited resource as an underlying mechanism is too
imprecise
▪ If researchers don’t know how to manipulate the exertion of self-control,
it is difficult to distinguish the results and provide conclusive evidence
3. Parsimony
5. As few assumptions as possible
6. Strength model: only two central assumptions
4. Generality
7. Strength model: proposed explanatory breadth of the model is large
5. Falsifiability
8. Popper: a theory can never be inductively proven to be true
9. When there are more exceptions to the theory than standard cases, a theory
becomes unfalsifiable
10. Strength model: due to the imprecision of the definition of self-control, it is hard
to falsify
6. Progress
11. Strength model: extraordinary successful in stimulating empirical work and
theory across different fields
Empirical perspective: criteria to evaluate research on a theory
1. Statistical power
12. Increases with larger effect and sample sizes
13. When low, a study is less likely to detect a true effect
14. Strength model: ego depletion is small in size and has low statistical power →
but still a lot of significant effects are found
2. Operationalization and manipulation check
, 15. Operationalization: the process of defining an instrument to measure a
phenomenon that is not directly observable
▪ Operational definitions: resulting representations of the phenomenon
→ they have to fit the theory to be able to draw conclusions
16. Manipulation checks to test whether an independent variable is successfully
manipulated the construct
17. Strength model: lot of operational definitions regarding ego depletion → to what
extent does this reliably and validly manipulate the underlying construct (self-
control)
▪ Ego depletion studies no use of manipulation checks
3. P-Hacking and publication bias
18. P-hacking: researchers engaging in questionable research practices to make
nonsignificant analyses statistically significant → it is hacked to significance →
increase the rates of false positives
▪ Finding of a “true” effect that does not exist in real life or is way smaller
19. Strength model: has been used for the ego depletion research
20. Publication bias: the observation that studies with statistically significant
results are more likely to be published than nonsignificant studies → distorted
perception of the magnitude and robustness of research literature
4. Moderation and mediation
21. Moderators: reveal important boundary conditions of effects proposed by a
theory
22. Strength model: lot of moderators used in ego depletion studies
23. Mediation: test assumptions about the underlying process of a phenomenon →
distinct between different theoretical explanations of the same observation,
providing more robust evidence
24. Strength model: mediation is rare
5. Meta-analyses
25. Combine the results of multiple relevant studies in a research → higher
statistical power, examine moderators across studies
▪ Quality is depended on the primary studies → can be distorted by
publication bias
26. Strength model: has been publication bias → little evidence that ego depletion is
a real phenomenon
6. Registered Replication Reports (RRR)
= multi-lab, high-quality replications of important experiments in psychological science
along with comments by the authors of the original studies
27. Great statistical power to test a central prediction
28. Restricted to replicating one specific, operationalization
29. Strength model: one RRR about ego depletion, but had methodological issues
ARTICLE Yaeger & Dweck- What can be learned from Growth Mindset controversies? (2020)
Growth mindset: the belief that personal characteristics (like intellectual abilities) can be
developed.
- People who hold this believe more likely to thrive in times of difficulty
Fixed mindset: the belief that personal characteristics are fixed and unchangeable.
- People who hold this believe more likely to shy away from challenges
Controversy 1: do mindsets predict student outcomes?
Mindset theory grows out of attribution and achievement goal theory.
